Dacko S.G. The Advanced Dictionary of Marketing Putting Theory to Use
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online marketing 370
Online Marketing
Weiber, R., and Kollmann, T. (1998). ‘Competitive Advantages in Virtual Markets:
Perspectives of “Information-Based Marketing” in Cyberspace,’ European Journal
of Marketing, 32(7–8), 603–615.
Mitchell, A. (2000). ‘In One-to-One Marketing, which “One” Comes First?’ Interactive
Marketing, 1(4), 354–367.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Peppers, D., Rogers, M., and Dorf, R. (1999). ‘Is your Company Ready for One-to-One
Marketing,’ Harvard Business Review, January–February, 151–160.
online marketing
(also called cybermarketing, cyberspace marketing, interactive market-
ing, internet marketing, internet-centric marketing, new economy mar-
keting, Web marketing, Web-based marketing, Web-centric marketing,
World Wide Web marketing, or WWW marketing)
DESCRIPTION
Marketing making use of a connection to a computer network and the internet
in particular.
KEY INSIGHTS
The scope of online marketing is markedly broad. In its simplest form,
online marketing may involve the active diplay of user-accessible mar-
keting material on a computer screen that results from a computer
connection. In actuality, online marketing has become synonymous with
internet marketing, which involves any number of marketing uses of the
internet, the vast network of globally connected computers, where such
connections are established by copper wire, fiber-optic cable, and wireless
connectivity, and for which there is a common set of communications
protocols. Thus, a key benefit of online marketing to firms is the ability
to reach and interactively communicate with large numbers of network-
connected individuals in ways that would be relatively more involved or
resource intensive (in terms of time, effort, resources) if conducted via
offline marketing methods. While simple text may be used in internet
marketing communication, the World Wide Web also provides a rich
set of more advanced graphics-based approaches from which to choose
(see Web marketing). In accomplishing online marketing, firms may
therefore adopt and pursue multiple marketing strategies, ranging from
e-mail marketing as a form of direct marketing to viral marketing to blog
marketing (see direct marketing; viral marketing; blog marketing).
Many marketing concepts and approaches are continuing to emerge in
the area of online marketing. For example, wikimarketing is a term that
is starting to be used in practice but with several different meanings
including: (1) using wikipedia.com as a starting point in online searches
to gain a basic understanding of unfamiliar topics that may have mar-
keting relevance, while also recognizing its potential for inaccuracies,
(2) using a ‘wiki’ approach in conjunction with marketing, where an
online collaboration model or specific Web application is used that allows
371 online marketing
multiple individuals to add content to a website as well as freely edit
such content, and (3) in the writing and editing of an entry contained
within wikipedia.com, deleting all material that is negative and further
including material that has the purpose of advertising or promoting
something.
Online marketing can also, of course, be compared and contrasted with
offline marketing, also called brick(s)-and-mortar marketing, which consists of
marketing activities that do not involve the use of, or connection to, a
computer or computer network. Given that the use of either approach
does not necessarily exclude the use of the other, click(s)-and-mortar mar-
keting,orclick(s)-and-brick(s) marketing , refers to marketing that combines
online marketing and offline marketing approaches. While there is an
enormous amount of research into online marketing, most references to
‘offline marketing’ as a marketing approach are found in discussions of
comparisons and contrasts between online and offline marketing.
KEY WORDS Internet, interactivity, computer network, web
IMPLICATIONS
Online marketing provides marketers with a rich and growing set of
marketing opportunities. In using an affiliate marketing approach, pay-
per-click marketing is just one example (see affiliate marketing). While
its use may be a cost-effective means of achieving many of the firm’s
marketing objectives, it is also widely viewed as an approach that affords
considerable flexibility and speed. It is, however, not suited to many areas
of marketing where in-person, face-to-face interaction is highly benefi-
cial, or when consumers prefer to see, touch, and feel products they are
considering for purchase. For some products such as many luxury goods,
for example, part of the experience consumers seek when shopping is
that of also being seen by other shoppers.
APPLICATION AREAS AND FURTHER READINGS
Marketing Strategy
Hanson, Ward A. (2000). Principles of Internet Marketing. Cincinnati: South-Western
College Publishing.
Allen, E., and Fjermestad, J. (2001). ‘E-commerce Marketing Strategies: Integrated
Framework and Case Analysis,’ Logistics Information Management, 14(1–2), 14–23.
Marketing Management
Newell, F. (2000). Loyalty.com: Customer Relationship Management in the New Era of
Internet Marketing. New York: McGraw Hill Professional Books.
Turban, Ephraim (2006). Electronic Commerce: A Managerial Perspective. Upper Saddle
River, NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall.
Consumer Behavior
Wang, H., Lee, M. K. O., and Wang, C. (1998). ‘Consumer Privacy Concerns about
Internet Marketing,’ Communications—ACM, 41(3), 63–70.
Marketing Research
Kozinets, R. V. (2002). ‘The Field behind the Screen: Using Netnography for Market-
ing Research in Online Communities,’ Journal of Marketing Research, 39(1), 61–72.
Grossnickle, Joshua, and Raskin, Oliver (2000). The Handbook of Online Marketing
Research: Knowing your Customer Using the Net. New York: McGraw-Hill.
opinion leader 372
International Marketing
White, G. K. (1997). ‘International Online Marketing of Focus to US Consumers,’
International Marketing Review, 14, 376–384.
Marketing Education
Kaynama, S. A., and Keesling, G. (2000). ‘Development of a Web-Based Internet
Marketing Course,’ Journal of Marketing Education, 22(2), 84–89.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Janal, D. (1998). Online Marketing Handbook: How to Promote, Advertise, and Sell your
Products and Services on the Internet. New York: John Wiley & Sons.
Leuf, Bo, and Cunningham, Ward (2001). The Wiki Way: Quick Collaboration on the Web.
Boston: Addison-Wesley.
Shapiro, Carl, and Varian, Hal R. (1999). Information Rules. Boston: Harvard Business
School Press.
on-the-edge marketing see unconventional marketing
OOH marketing see out-of-home marketing
opinion leader
DESCRIPTION
Individuals that wield a disproportionately large influence over the attitudes,
opinions,and behaviors of othersand where such individualsare ones to whom
others turn for advice or information.
KEY INSIGHTS
In the context of purchase intentions and purchase decisions, opinion
leaders are those that have influence over others as a result of their
personal characteristics, which may include their product or service
experience, expertise, or knowledge, their interest in seeking out and
communicating information on new products or services, their interest
and vocal ability in persuading others to adopt their personal views, and
their status in a particular group or community.
KEY WORDS Consumer influence, advice, information, attitudes, opinions,
behavior
IMPLICATIONS
Whether through their abilities to influence large-scale public opinion
through communication channels such as the internet, or key groups of
individuals through face-to-face communication, marketers may benefit
from identifying individuals who are likely to be opinion leaders for the
firm’s offerings and targeting them with effective marketing communica-
tions. ‘Winning over’ such individuals may facilitate the firm’s efforts to
accelerate the diffusion of positive information about the firm’s offerings
in the marketplace.
APPLICATION AREAS AND FURTHER READINGS
Consumer Behavior
King, Charles W., and Summers, John O. (1970). ‘Overlap of Opinion Leadership
across Consumer Product Categories,’ Journal of Marketing Research, 7(1), February,
43–50.
373 options theory
Marketing Management
Feick, Lawrence F., and Price, Linda L. (1987). ‘The Market Maven: A Diffuser of
Marketplace Information,’ Journal of Marketing, 51(1), January, 83–97.
Leonard-Barton, Dorothy (1985). ‘Experts as Negative Opinion Leaders in the Dif-
fusion of a Technological Innovation,’ Journal of Consumer Research, 11(4), March,
914–926.
Chan, Kenny K., and Shekhar, Misra (1990). ‘Characteristics of the Opinion Leader:
A New Dimension,’ Journal of Advertising, 19, Summer, 53.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Myers, James H., and Robertson, Thomas S. (1972). ‘Dimensions of Opinion Leader-
ship,’ Journal of Marketing Research, 9(1), February, 41–46.
opportunity cost see cost
opt-in marketing see permission marketing
opt-out marketing see permission marketing
options theory
DESCRIPTION
Theory or theories aimed at understanding, explaining, and predicting phe-
nomena where an individual or organization has the freedom or right, but not
the obligation, to pursue one or more courses of action.
KEY INSIGHTS
Options theory comprises an area of study concerned with phenomena
involving choice. The theory has a grounding in finance when one con-
siders the scope of financial options involving contracts or agreements
between buyers and sellers where a buyer has a right, but not an obliga-
tion, to a purchase or sale of a financial asset. When one considers options
as not being limited to those that are purely financial or restricted to
trade, the scope of the theory becomes that of real options theory, where the
emphasis is on a phenomenon where an individual, or more commonly a
business entity, has the freedom, but not the obligation, to undertake one
or more courses of action, such as the freedom to either double or quad-
ruple production capacity in response to market demand, for example.
KEY WORDS Choice, freedom of choice
IMPLICATIONS
While phenomena involving real options are not new, there have been
many recent advances in analytical methodologies concerning their
study. Marketers desiring to be more rigorous in the identification and
analysis of real options as a means to increasing both marketing and
organizational effectiveness may benefit from a deeper understanding of
real options theory-related research.
APPLICATION AREAS AND FURTHER READINGS
Marketing Strategy
Adner, R., and Levinthal, D. (2004). ‘What is not a Real Option: Considering
Boundaries for the Application of Real Options to Business Strategy,’ Academy
of Management Review, 29, 74–85.
order effect 374
Achrol, R. S., and Kotler, P. (1999). ‘Marketing in the Network Economy,’ Journal of
Marketing, 63, 146–63.
McGrath, R. G. (1999). ‘Falling Forward: Real Options Reasoning and Entrepreneur-
ial Failure,’ Academy of Management Review, 24(1), 13–30.
Marketing Management
Foote, D. A., and Folta, T. B. (2002). ‘Temporary Workers as Real Options,’ Human
Resource Management Review, 12(4), 579–597.
Marketing Research
Dias, S., and Ryals, L. (2002). ‘Options Theory and Options Thinking in Valuing
Returns on Brand Investments and Brand Extensions,’ Journal of Product & Brand
Management, 11, 115–128.
New Product Development
Paxson, D. A. (2003). Real R & D Options: Theory, Practice and Implementation. Oxford:
Butterworth-Heinemann.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Leslie, K. J., and Michaels, M. P. (1997). ‘The Real Power of Real Options,’ McKinsey
Quarterly, 3, 5–23.
order effect
(also called placement effect)
DESCRIPTION
Any effect of the serial order or placement of stimuli on the response of an
individual.
KEY INSIGHTS
Order effects are of particular concern in research designs where the
influence of the order of questions in questionnaires and other data
collection instruments must be considered if results are to be interpreted
accurately. Over the course of completing a long questionnaire, for exam-
ple, individuals may express less accurate views later in the questionnaire
as a result of their experiencing fatigue, or individuals’ responses to later
questions may change as a result of their learning in certain ways from
earlier questions.
KEY WORDS Individual responses, data collection
IMPLICATIONS
Marketers must be sensitive to order effects possibly confounding the
interpretation of results of particular research approaches and should
consider methods to control for such effects, such as by presenting dif-
ferent randomizations of question orders to different respondents of a
survey.
APPLICATION AREAS AND FURTHER READINGS
Consumer Behavior
Haugtvedt, Curtis P., and Wegener, Duane T. (1994). ‘Message Order Effects in
Persuasion: An Attitude Strength Perspective,’ Journal of Consumer Research, 21(1),
June, 205–218.
Buda, R., and Zhang, Y. (2000). ‘Consumer Product Evaluation: The Interactive
Effect of Message Framing, Presentation Order, and Source Credibility,’ Journal
of Product and Brand Management, 9(4–5), 229–242.
375 organization theory
Forecasting
Urban, Glen L., Weinberg, Bruce D., and Hauser, John R. (1996). ‘Premarket Fore-
casting of Really-New Products,’ Journal of Marketing, 60(1), January, 47–60.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Jain, Arun K., and Pinson, Christian (1976). ‘The Effect of Order of Presentation of
Similarity Judgments on Multidimensional Scaling Results: An Empirical Exami-
nation,’ Journal of Marketing Research, 13(4), November, 435–439.
order of entry effect see market entry timing
order-routine specification see industrial buyer behavior
organization theory
DESCRIPTION
Theory or theories aimed at understanding, explaining, and predicting how,
why, and to what extent various organizational designs, structures, and
decision-making processes are, or are likely to be, effective for achieving
particular aims.
KEY INSIGHTS
Organization theory views organizations as social systems and is there-
fore concerned with understanding and explaining relationships within
such systems. The role and influence of organizational politics on individ-
ual and group decision making is one of many topics examined within the
domain of organization theory.
KEY WORDS Organization, design, structure, decision making
IMPLICATIONS
While the scope of organization theory is very broad, it encompasses
numerous frameworks and concepts on which marketers can draw
to help understand, explain, or predict the usefulness of particular
approaches for organizing marketing or the broader organization. Mar-
keters may also draw upon organization theory-based concepts in seek-
ing to understand how organizational politics may influence marketing
decision making.
APPLICATION AREAS AND FURTHER READINGS
Marketing Management
Ruekert, Robert W., Walker, Orville C., Jr., and Roering, Kenneth J. (1985). ‘The
Organization of Marketing Activities: A Contingency Theory of Structure and
Performance,’ Journal of Marketing, 49(1), Winter, 13–25.
Ruekert, Robert W., and Walker, Orville C., Jr. (1987). ‘Marketing’s Interaction
with Other Functional Units: A Conceptual Framework and Empirical Evidence,’
Journal of Marketing, 51(1), January, 1–19.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Workman, John P., Jr., Homburg, Christian, and Gruner, Kjell (1998). ‘Marketing
Organization: An Integrative Framework of Dimensions and Determinants,’ Jour-
nal of Marketing, 62(3), July, 21–41.
out-of-home marketing 376
organizational buyer behavior see industrial buyer behavior
organizational marketing see business-to-business marketing
out-of-home marketing
(also called OOH marketing, outdoor marketing, ambient marketing, or
place-based marketing)
DESCRIPTION
Any and all marketing activity directed at consumers where they happen to
be, in places other than their places of residence.
KEY INSIGHTS
Out-of-home marketing (OOH marketing) encompasses a broad range of
more specific marketing activities, with many of such activities being in
the areas of advertising and sales promotion. As such, a more common
term for OOH marketing is out-of-home advertising or OOH advertising.
Such efforts may involve, for example, advertising via billboards, street
furniture, or transit (e.g. buses). Out-of-home advertising need not neces-
sarily take place outdoors, as practices including advertising in shopping
malls and in shops via flat screen television displays are also within
the scope of out-of-home advertising. Such displays may be used alone
or in conjunction with other displays, where a closed-circuit television
network is used for broadcasting or displaying marketing-related infor-
mation to be seen and/or heard by current and prospective customers.
Ambient marketing refers to marketing in a consumer’s surrounding
environment. Ambient marketing may therefore involve advertising any-
where a consumer might be including bus shelters, toilets, or on the
sidewalk along a city street. It may involve the use of small posters or
flyers on lamp-posts or something more dramatic such as branded hot air
balloons. While the term is often used synonymously with outdoor mar-
keting and OOH marketing, it also has more specific meanings including
that of marketing activities that blend in closely with the consumer’s
surrounding environment (e.g. writing the marketer’s message in the
sand at a public beach), marketing activities in the natural environment
that also convey a sense of being special (e.g. a salesperson handing
out leaflets in a public place to selected individuals, as opposed to all,
as a means to suggest such activities are special to those encountering
them), and marketing activities where consumers are located which are
implemented in ways that try to catch consumers when they will be
highly receptive to the marketer’s message.
KEY WORDS Marketing communication, advertising, outdoors
IMPLICATIONS
Marketers seeking to reach consumers outside their homes have a wide
range of more specific marketing approaches from which to choose. Even
though many forms of mass media, such as newspapers and magazines,
are available outside the home, they are differentiated from out-of-home
377 outbound marketing
approaches in that they are usually for home or office viewing. To the
extent that out-of-home approaches involve reaching and communicating
with consumers at places and times when they are likely to be receptive
to the marketer’s message, such approaches may be a beneficial compo-
nent of the firm’s marketing strategy.
APPLICATION AREAS AND FURTHER READINGS
Marketing Strategy
Thode, Stephen F., and Maskulka, James M. (1998). ‘Place-Based Marketing Strat-
egies, Brand Equity and Vineyard Valuation,’ Journal of Product & Brand Manage-
ment, 7(5), 379–399.
Sepe, Edward, Ling, Pamela M., and Glantz, Stanton A. (2002). ‘Smooth Moves: Bar
and Nightclub Tobacco Promotions that Target Young Adults,’ American Journal of
Public Health, 92(3), 414–419.
Ling, P. M., and Glantz, S. A. (2002). ‘Why and How the Tobacco Industry Sells
Cigarettes to Young Adults: Evidence from Industry Documents,’ American Journal
of Public Health, 92(6), 908–916.
Schooler, C., Basil, M. D., and Altman, D. G. (1996). ‘Alcohol and Cigarette Adver-
tising on Billboards: Targeting with Social Cues,’ Health Communication, 8(2), 109–
130.
Mankins, M. (2002). ‘The Digital Sign in the Wired City,’ IEEE Wireless Applications,
February, 54–58.
Marketing Research
Corbin, H. L. (1995). ‘Tracking the New Thinkers,’ Public Relations Quarterly, 39(4), 38.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Tucker, E. M., Alvey, P. A., Mulligan, J., and Edwards, S. (1997). ‘A Report on
Outdoor: Current Research into the Factors of Effective Out-of-Home Advertising
Campaigns,’ Proceedings of the Conference of the American Academy of Advertising, 176.
outbound marketing
(also referred to as out-bound marketing)
DESCRIPTION
Any marketing approach where it is the marketer or the marketer’s organiza-
tion that initiates contact with current or potential customers.
KEY INSIGHTS
Outbound marketing, as where a company has a dedicated call cen-
ter engaged in cold-calling potential customers, emphasizes marketing
where it is the firm that takes the initiative to reach out to customers
rather than the other way around (see inbound marketing). What varies
in outbound marketing approaches and techniques among firms is the
extent to which the firm uses technologies or processes that help to
increase the effectiveness of its targeting of potential customers and/or
increase the receptivity of targeted customers to the firm’s offerings.
A significant fraction of firms using outbound marketing calls in their
marketing efforts, for example, rely on predictive dialing technologies,
whereas many other firms do not use such technologies. A major aim
of much outbound marketing is therefore increasing its effectiveness by
reducing its intrusiveness and privacy-insensitivity as perceived by its
outlier effect 378
recipients. Goldstein and Lee (2005), for example, refer to this as right-time
marketing, where firms adopt approaches that accommodate customer
demands for when and how marketers should communicate with them.
KEY WORDS Proactive marketing, firm-initiated marketing
IMPLICATIONS
Outbound marketing provides marketers with a means to proactively
contact and engage with current and potential customers. Rather than
‘blanketing’ or sporadically targeting markets with such efforts, how-
ever, astute marketers recognize the value of adopting approaches that
increase the receptivity of targeted customers, such as when database
marketing approaches are used in combination with telemarketing
approaches (see database marketing; telemarketing).
APPLICATION AREAS AND FURTHER READINGS
Marketing Strategy
Hirschowitz, A. (2001). ‘Closing the CRM Loop: The 21st Century Marketer’s Chal-
lenge: Transforming Customer Insight into Customer Value,’ Journal of Targeting
Measurement and Analysis for Marketing, 10(2), 168–178.
Goldstein, Dan, and Lee, Yuchun (2005). ‘The Rise of Right-Time Marketing,’ Journal
of Database Marketing & Customer Strategy Management, 12(3), April, 212–225.
Haden, Belinda (2005). ‘Silent Calls Briefing,’ Interactive Marketing, 6(3), January,
268–273.
Services Marketing
Santomero, A., and Eckles, D. L. (2000). ‘The Determinants of Success in the New
Financial Services Environment,’ FRBNY Economic Policy Review, October, 11–23.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Day, C. E. (1994). ‘New Technologies that Facilitate Integrated Inbound/Outbound
Marketing,’ Telemarketing, 12(11), 75.
outdoor marketing see out-of-home marketing
outlier effect
DESCRIPTION
Any biasing or otherwise adverse effect on the conclusions drawn regarding
the relationships between variables that is directly attributable to the presence
within numerical data of data that are markedly smaller or larger than other
values.
KEY INSIGHTS
Outlier effects are a possible concern in marketing research that seeks
to draw useful conclusions from analyses of numerical data. Inattention
to outliers can lead to misleading conclusions, either by the researcher
or by individuals interpreting and using the research findings. To ensure
that marketing research findings are representative of the phenomenon
being studied, care needs to be taken to determine to what extent outlier
data should be included or excluded in the numerical analyses and, at
379 overconfidence effect
the very least, the methods employed in their treatment should be made
explicit when communicating the findings.
KEY WORDS Numerical data, data analysis
IMPLICATIONS
Marketing researchers should always examine numerical data for the
presences of outliers to ensure that appropriate methods are used for
their treatment. As marketing researchers vary in the way they treat and
report outliers in their research studies, care should be taken in their
interpretation and use, whether such studies are used individually or in
broader comparisons.
APPLICATION AREAS AND FURTHER READINGS
Marketing Research
Peterson, R. A. (2001). ‘On the Use of College Students in Social Science Research:
Insights from a Second-Order Meta-analysis,’ Journal of Consumer Research, 28,
December, 450–461.
Teng, C. J., Abbott, F. V., Franses, P. H., Kloek, T., and Lucas, A. (1998). ‘Outlier
Robust Analysis of Long-Run Marketing Effects for Weekly Scanning Data,’ Jour-
nal of Econometrics, 89(1), November, 293–315.
Dekimpe, M. G., and Hanssens, D. M. (1999). ‘Sustained Spending and Persistent
Response: A New Look at Long-Term Marketing Profitability,’ Journal of Marketing
Research, 36, 397–412.
Semon, T. (1999). ‘Outlier Problem has no Practical Solution,’ Marketing News, 31(16),
June, 2–7.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Chen, C., and Liu, L. M. (1993). ‘Joint Estimation of Model Parameters and Outlier
Effects in Time Series,’ Journal of the American Statistical Association, 88, 284–297.
overconfidence effect
DESCRIPTION
Any effect resulting from an individual having greater certainty in the correct-
ness of his or her beliefs or judgments than circumstances warrant.
KEY INSIGHTS
Empirical research on individual probability judgments finds overconfi-
dence to be a relatively pervasive phenomenon. While the nature and
extent of overconfidence varies considerably among individuals, the cog-
nitive process of anchoring and adjustment, where individuals make
initial judgments and then adjust the judgments to arrive at a final
judgment but where final judgments tend to be biased by the value of
the initial judgments, is believed by some to account for much of the
phenomenon.
KEY WORDS Confidence, certainty, beliefs, judgment
IMPLICATIONS
Since overconfidence is a relatively pervasive tendency among individu-
als, marketers, too, must be wary of being overconfident in their beliefs
and judgments. Making efforts to perform ‘reality checks,’ for example,