Chilingarian G.V. et al. Surface Operations in Petroleum Production, II
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Developments in Petroleum
Science,
19B
surface operations in
petroleum production,
I
I
DEVELOPMENTS IN
PETROLEUM SCIENCE
Advisory Editor:
G.V.
Chilingarian
Volumes
1,3,4,
7
and
13
are out
of
print.
2.
W.H.FERTL
5.
6.
D.W. PEACEMAN
8.
L.P.DAKE
9.
K.MAGARA
ABNORMAL FORMATION PRESSURES
OIL SHALE
FUNDAMENTALS OF NUMERICAL RESERVOIR SIMULATION
FUNDAMENTALS OF RESERVOIR ENGINEERING
COMPACTION AND FLUID MIGRATION
DECONVOLUTION OF GEOPHYSICAL TIME SERIES IN THE EXPLORATION FOR OIL AND
NATURAL GAS
11.
DRILLING AND DRILLING FLUIDS
12.
T.D. VAN GOLF-RACHT
FUNDAMENTALS
OF
FRACTURED RESERVOIR ENGINEERING
14.
G.
MOZES (Editor)
PARAFFIN PRODUCTS
T.F. YEN and G.V. CHILINGARIAN (Editors)
10.
M.T. SILVIA and E.A. ROBINSON
G.V. CHILINGARIAN and P. VORABUTR
15A
O.SERRA
FUNDAMENTALS OF WELL-LOG INTERPRETATION
1.
THE ACQUISITION OF LOGGING DATA
15B O.SERRA
FUNDAMENTALS OF WELL-LOG INTERPRETATION
2.
THE INTERPRETATION OF LOGGING DATA
16. R.E. CHAPMAN
PETROLEUMGEOLOGY
17A E.C. DONALDSON G.V. CHILINGARIAN and
T.F.
YEN (Editors)
ENHANCED
OIL
RECOVEF~Y,
I
FUNDAMENTALS AND ANALYSES
18A A.P. SZILAS
PRODUCTION AND TRANSPORT OF OIL AND GAS
A. FLOW MECHANICS AND PRODUCTION
second completely revised edition
18B A.P. SZILAS
PRODUCTION AND TRANSPORT OF OIL AND GAS
€3.
GATHERING AND TRANSPORTATION
iecond completely revised edition
19A
19B
20. A.J. DIKKERS
21. W.F. RAMIREZ
22.
23.
J.
HAGOORT
24.
W.
LITTMANN
25.
26. D.MADER
G.V. CHILINGARIAN J.O. ROBERTSON Jr. and
S.
KUMAR
G.V. CHILINGARIAN J.O. ROBERTSON Jr. and
S.
KUMAR
SURFACE
OPERATIONS IN
PBTROLEUM
PRODUCTION,
I
SURFACE
OPERATIONS
IN
P~TROLEUM
PRODUCTION,
11
GEOLOGY IN PETROLEUM PRODUCTION
APPLICATION
OF
OPTIMAL CONTROL THEORY TO ENHANCED OIL RECOVERY
MICROBIAL ENHANCED dIL RECOVERY
FUNDAMENTALS OF GAS RESERVOIR ENGINEERING
POLYMER FLOODING
N.K. BAIBAKOV and A.R. GARUSHEV
THERMAL METHODS OF PETROLEUM PRODUCTION
HYDRAULIC PROPPANT FRACTURING AND GRAVEL PACKING
E.C. DONALDSON G.V. CHILINGARIAN and
T.F.
YEN (Editors)
VIII
cities in cold climates that must be assured of fuel supplies during the winter
months. Underground fuel storage and retrieval is an active area of oilfield
production management that utilizes the technology presented in this entire treatise
on surface operations.
Finally, the technology of testing petroleum products and sample experiments for
junior or senior petroleum engineering students are presented in this volume.
Changes in oilfield technology develop gradually from current practices and
developing needs; therefore, this two-volume treatise will serve for many years as
the standard reference of oilfield surface operations for managers, engineers, con-
sultants, and teachers in the petroleum industry.
Erle
C.
Donaldson
University
of
Oklahoma
Norman, Oklahoma
IX
CONTENTS
CONTRIBUTORS
........................................................
VI
PREFACE
..............................................................
VII
Chapter 1. INTRODUCTION
G.V. Chilinganan,
J.O.
Robertson,
Jr.
and C. Thibault with Appendix by D.D. Coleman
Chokes
................................................................
2
6
Subsidence
.................................
.....
6
Sample prob
..................................
7
Solution
..................................
9
Appendix
1.
9
References
..............................................................
11
Throttling effect (gas condensate)
...........................................
Chapter
2.
FLOW RATE MEASUREMENT
T.R. Sifferman with Appendix by L.J. Kemp and G.V. Chilinganan
Introduction
............................................................
13
13
Definitions
..................................................
Main types of meters
....................................................
Accuracy
..........................................
Rangeabili
ty
........................................
Repeatability
.........................................................
14
Linearity
............
....................
14
............................
15
Turbine meters
.......................................
15
................................
Readout devices, 21
Orifice meters
........
.........
..
..............
22
Orifice meters
....
.............................
22
Turbinemeters
........................................................
27
Positive displacement meters
...............................................
28
Volumetric flow rate
of
gases
.........................
Vortex shedding meters
...
...........................
28
Other types
of
flow rate mea
t
..............................
Mass flow rate.
.................................
Special flow meters
..............................
Simple equations for measuring weight flow rates for gases and liq
Sample problems and questions
..........................
Appendix
2.
I-Development
of
orifice metering
...................................
Two-phase systems
.....
.....
.............
30
33
Definition of orifice meter
................................................
34
History
................................................
X
Operation
of
orifice meter
..............
Description of orifice meter
...............................................
Fundamentals of measurement
.................................
Outline of basic laws
for
ideal gases, 48-Deviations from the Ideal Gas Law, 49-Basic
flow formula (q
=
C’fi),
50-Orifice flow constant
(C’),
51
Computation of volumes
.................................................
Specific gravity and temperature determinations
.................................
Specific gravity, 56-Temperature
of
flowing gas, 57-Interpreting the recorded tempera-
ture value, 57
Significant figures
.............................................
Subsequent changes of coefficients
........
Calculation
of
(C)
for
nonstandard internal-diameter meter run
......................
References
..............................................................
Example, 58
35
37
48
53
56
57
57
58
58
Chapter
3.
THE MANUFACTURE, CHEMISTRY AND CLASSIFICATION
OF
OILWELL CE-
MENTS AND ADDITIVES
J.O.
Robertson,
Jr.,
G.V. Chilinganan and
S.
Kumar
Introduction
.....
....................................
61
....................
61
Classification of oilwell cements
..............
....................
63
....................
64
Pozzolan-line cements
.....
.................................
65
Resin
or
plastic cements
......................................
65
Diesel oil cements
......................................................
65
Expanding cements
.........................................
.
66
Latexcement
.........................................................
67
Calcium aluminate cements
.................
....................
67
Low-density cement (Spherelite TM)
............................
.
67
Permafrost cement
.........................................
68
.......................
68
Accelerators
.................................................
Light-weight additives
...
............
69
Cement retarders
Lost circulation a
...................................
........
69
Friction reducers
Specialty oilwell cements
...........
........................
64
Gypsum cements
..............
........................
66
Cementing operations
.......................
....................
73
Primary oilwell cementing
..................................
73
Waiting-on-cement time
(W
....................
..........
76
Surface and subsurface cementing equipment
...............................
78
Cement pumping equipment
.................................
.......
78
Cement mixing equipment
..........................................
79
Oilwell cementing practice
.............................................
Recirculating systems, 81-Batch mixing, 82
XI
Subsurface cementing equipment
.
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Casing-cementing heads, 86-Cementing plugs, 86- Floating and guiding equipment, 86
-Stage-cementing tools, 89-Casing centralizers, 93-Casing scratchers, 93-Cement
baskets and external casing packers, 99
Acknowledgements
........................................................
References
..............................................................
Chapter 4. FRACTURING
J.O. Robertson, Jr., G.V. Chilingarian and
S.
Kumar
Introduction
............................................................
General criteria
of
well
.........................
....
.....
Mechanics
of
hydraulic fracturing
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Early history
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.........................................
Hydraulic fracturing process variables
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Rock mechanics considerations
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Fracture geometry
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Fracture inclination
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Fracture initiation
Fracture area
Fracturing fluid coefficient
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Oil-base fluids
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Water-base fluids
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Acid-base fluids
.........................................
Gelled acids
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Acidemulsions
........................................................
Chemically retarded acids
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Aqueousfoams
........................................................
Propping agents for hydraulic fracturing
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Mechanical equipment for hydraulic fracturing
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Pump equipment
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Proportioning equipment
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Metering and control equipment
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Bulk-handling equipment
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Surface equipment
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Fracturing fluids and additives
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Sample questions and problems
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............................
...............................
Calculate, 157
.........................................
Chapter
5.
ACIDIZING OILWELLS
J.O. Robertson,
Jr.
and
G.V.
Chilinganan
Historical use
of
acids in oilwells
.
.
...............................
Acidtypes
.......................................................
:......
Carbonate oil reservoirs
.
Sandstone reservoirs
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Purpose of oilwell acidizing
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Desired properties of oilwell acids
.
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83
99
99
101
101
106
108
108
109
113
115
116
119
123
125
128
129
133
133
133
134
134
134
143
143
146
147
150
150
152
155
155
155
157
161
162
163
165
167
169
Acidizing treatments
..............................
Oilwell acid additives
Surfactants
...........
...................................
116
Diverting agents
........
..................................
180
Fracture acidization-design
.................................
References
.....................................
...........
189
Chapter 6. GRAVEL PACKING
W.B.
Hatcher, G.V. Chilingarian and
J.R.
Solum
Introduction
...................................
Sand production
.................................
Gravel selection
....
....
..................................
192
Gravel sizing.
................................
...........
192
Gravel quality
.........................................................
197
Gravel-packing fluids
.............................
...........
203
Screening, 197-Gravel shape, 198-Gravel solubility, 199-Gravel strength,
203
Low-viscosity carrier fluids
..........
......................
203
High-viscosity carrier fluids
.........
Medium-
or
intermediate-viscosity carrier fluids
........
Foam
or
low-density carrier fluids
.....
Screen
or
liner selection.
...........................
..............
204
Methods
of
gravel-packing
...............................................
205
Openhole gravel packs
..........................
Cased-hole gravel packing
.......................
"Single-stage'' method, 206-"Two-stage method, 206
Deviatedwells
.............................................
Gravel-packing tools and equipment
...........
Blender
..................................................
...................................
211
.............
211
Crossover tool
.
Port collar
...
................
215
Chapter 7.
STEAM
ENHANCED OIL RECOVERY
J.P. Fanaritis and G.V. Chilingarian
Introduction
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General data pertaining to steam injection
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Enhanced oil recovery classification
......................................
Secondary production technique, 222-Tertiary pro-
Primary production technique, 2
duction technique, 222
Steam injection mechanisms
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Steam injection performance data
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Well depth, 224-Permeability, 224-Average injection rate, 226- Recovery,
226-Cumulative oil/steam ratio, 226
Friction
loss
effect
on
steam temperature, 228-Surface rad
heat
losses,
229-Heat losses to surrounding formations, 234
Wellbore and formation heat
losses
.
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,
229- Wellbore
Steam injection techniques
Cyclic steam injection
Steamflooding
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Recent development in steam injection techniques
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Steam additives
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Hotplate steam injection process
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Fracture-assisted steamflood process
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Introduction to equipment designs
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_..___...__.........___..
Equipment designs for steam injection projects
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Steam generator design
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Tube side flow design, 249-Suggested velocities in coils, 250-Radiant section design, 252
-Radiant tubewall temperature, 256-Convection section design, 258- Steam generator
thermal efficiency, 259-Feedwater deaeration, 260-Two-phase pressure drop,
261-Steam quality measurement instrumentation, 261-Low
NO,
burners, 264
Feedwater treatment
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Turbidity
of
feedwater, 265-Oil content, 265-Dissolved gases in feedwater,
kalinity of feedwater, 266-Silica content in feedwater, 266-Metal contaminants in
feedwater, 266-pH of feedwater, 266-Total hardness of feedwater, 267
Flue gas scrubbers
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Low-temperature economizers
Casing vent systems
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Downhole steam generators
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High-temperature thermal packers
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Solid-fuel-fired oilfield steam generators
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Sampleproblems
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References and bibliography
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Chapter 8. CORROSION IN DRILLING AND PRODUCING OPERATIONS
T.A. Bertness,
G.V.
Chilingarian and
M.
Al-Bassam
Introduction
Corrosive agents in drilling and producing operations
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Electrochemical corrosion
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Chemistry
of
corrosion and ele
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Definition of corrosion
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Requirements for electrochemical corrosion
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Components of electrochemical corrosion
............................
Actual electrode potentials
.............................
e force series.
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221
221
222
222
224
221
238
238
240
244
244
245
246
246
246
247
264
267
210
271
272
272
274
276
276
283
283
283
284
284
286
287
287
XIV
Galvanic series
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Corrosion of
steel
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Types of corrosion
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Forms of cracking in drilling and producing environments
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Hydrogen embrittlement (sulfide cracking)
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Corrosion fatigue
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Hydrogen blistering, 293
Corrodants in drilling and production fluids
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Hydrogen sulfide
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Carbondioxide
__.............___.....____.....____.......t............
Alkalinity (pH)
of
environment
.
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Cathodic protection
Role of bacteria in corrosion
Corrosion in gas-condensate wells
Inhibitors and passivators
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Sample problems
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Problem8-1
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Problem8-2
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Problem8-3
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Problem8-4
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Problem8-5
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Solution, 312
Solution, 312
Solution, 313
Solution, 313
Solution, 314
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References
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.
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Chapter 9. WATER QUALITY FOR SUBSURFACE INJECTION
C.C. Wright and
G.V.
Chilinganan
Introduction
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Injection suitability
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Clay
swelling.
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Formation and deposition
of
insoluble material in the formation
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Increase in oil saturation
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Suspended solids
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Movement of formati
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Sources of suspended solids
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Calcium carbonate scale
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Sulfate scales
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Some causes of waterflood corrosion
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Carbon dioxide, 329- Hydrogen sulfide, 329-
330-Bacterial corrosion, 331
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Scale
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Corrosion
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_._......__..___......__..
Use
of
sea water for injection purposes
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Characteristics
of
sea water
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Dissolved oxygen, 332-Calcium carbonate saturation, 333-pH of sea water, 333-High
sulfate ion content, 333-Magnesium ion, 333-Marine life, 334-Seasonal changes in
composition
of
sea water, 334-Oil content, 334
289
289
290
292
292
294
296
296
297
301
302
303
306
307
310
311
311
312
313
313
314
315
316
319
319
320
320
322
323
324
324
325
326
327
327
329
332
332