Cao Z. (Ed.) Thin Film Growth: Physics, materials science and applications
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408 Index
© Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2011
X-ray anti-Bragg oscillations, 102–6
optical real-time studies, 109–113
diindenoperylene lm on glass, 111
experimental setup and real-time
GIXD data, 112
optical reectance during thin lm
growth, 109–10
real-time DRS spectra and
molecular arrangement, 113
simultaneous optical reectance and
GIXD during thin lm growth,
111–13
post-deposition changes, 108–9
molecular monolayer dewetting,
108–9
X-ray reectivity during growth and
dewetting, 110
scaling laws, 106–8
real-time reectivity data, 107
reectivity and full q-range
oscillations, 106–8
surface roughness scaling, 108
transient strain during thin lm growth,
102
GIXD pattern evolution, 103
experimental techniques
real-time and in situ observation,
87–101
microscopy, 90–1
optical spectroscopy techniques,
88–90
overview for real-time growth
observation, 87
scattering methods, 91–101
set-up for in-situ DRS, 89
specular and diffuse scattering, 93
specular reectivity measurement
and grazing incidence diffraction
(GIXD), 92
X-ray, He and electron scattering,
94
X-ray reectivity curves and growth
oscillations, 97
Fabry–Pérot interferometer, 33
Fabry–Perot oscillation, 158–9
face centered cubic, 156
FCC see face centered cubic
Fermi level, 25, 37, 203, 307
Fermi–Dirac statistics, 208
ferroelectric ceramics, 369–70
ferroelectric polymer lms
electrocaloric effect, 364–81
future trends, 379–80
large ECE, 371–9
previous investigations in polar
materials, 369–71
thermodynamic considerations,
365–8
eld emission resonances (FER), 266
nal simulation time, 391
uorinated copper phthalocyanine, 111–13
Föppl–von Kármán theory of buckling,
322–5
Föppl–von Kármán theory of thin plates,
318
Fourier series, 356
Fourier transform infrared IFS-66 Bruker
Spectrometer, 158
Frank–van-der-Merve mode, 69–70
GaAs(111), 9–11
GaN, 297–300
Gibbs free energy, 365, 367
Gibbs-Thomson relation, 54
GIXD see grazing incidence X-ray
diffraction
GLAD see glancing angle deposition
glancing angle deposition, 123
global shadowing effect, 124
graphene, 228
honeycomb structure, 229
graphene lms
30-inch roll-to-roll production for
transparent electrodes, 218–25
electrical characterisation of
HNO
3
-doped lms, 223–4
optical and electrical properties,
222–5
roll-base production photographs,
219
synthesis, 211–22
epitaxial growth on single crystal metal
surfaces, 228–50
future trends, 249–50
graphene’s honeycomb structure, 229
growth, 211–25
growth on metal, 237–49
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409Index
© Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2011
calculated structural models for
graphene nanoislands on Ir(111),
240
carbon nanotube growth at surface
of catalytic particle, 245
different elementary processed
during CVD growth, 238
differentiated STM topograph and
contours of growing graphene
islands, 243
graphene coverage as function of
ethene dose, 246
graphene multilayers on metals,
247–9
graphene nanoakes, 239–42
interaction metal step edges upon
graphene growth on Ir(111) and
on Pd(111), 244
plain graphene sheets, 242–7
repeated sequences of graphene
CVD growth on Ir(111), 248
STM topographs of carbidic and
graphene islands on Ir(111),
241
large-scale pattern for stretchable
transparent electrodes, 211–17
direct synthesis, 211–12, 213
spectroscopic analyses, 213
transfer processes, 212, 214–15
optical and electrical properties,
215–17, 222–5
illustration, 216–17
optical characterisation, 221–2
structure on metals, 229–37
commensurate or not, 230–3
height of graphene sheet, 233–4
intrinsic and extrinsic defects of
graphene, 236
LEED pattern, STM topographs and
RHEED pattern for graphene on
Ir(111), 232
micro-LEED pattern, angle
distribution, STM topograph of
graphene on Ir(111), 235
orientation variants, small-angle
twins and dislocations, 234–6
other defects, 236–7
structural model for graphene on
Ni and ball model for a moiré
between graphene and a Ir plane,
231
graphene nanoakes, 239–42
grazing incidence X-ray diffraction, 95,
102
growth rate, 86
hard sphere systems, 160
helium atom scattering (HAS), 97–9
hetero/non epitaxial growth, 69–76
growth stage, 70–1
lm growth with and without
positive feedback, 71
initial deposition processes, 69–70
non-positive feedback, 74–6
composition, 75–6
crystallographic orientation, 74–5
positive feedback, 71–4
concentration gradient, 72–3
shadowing, 71–2
thermophoresis, 74
heteroepitaxy, 96, 97, 292
hexagonal closed packed models, 156
high resolution electron energy loss
spectroscopy, 272
homo-epitaxial growth
kinetics, 61–9
aggregation, aggregation/
dissociation, breakup, 66
coalescence, 67–8
defects, 68–9
deposition-diffusion-aggregation
(DDA) model, 63–4
direct impingement, 65–6
edge diffusion/deformation, 65
evaporation, 64–5
illustration of processes, 62
migration, 66–7
thermodynamics, 61
homoepitaxy, 96, 97
Hooke’s equation, 323
HREELS see high resolution electron
energy loss spectroscopy
hydrogen uoride solution, 212
III-nitrides
polarity controlled epitaxy by molecular
beam epitaxy, 288–314
indium tin oxide (ITO), 225
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410 Index
© Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2011
InN, 300–9
interfacial X-ray microscopy, 114
irreversible aggregation, 66
island growth (Volmer-Weber), 84
Kevin–Probe spectroscopy, 272
kinetic Monte Carlo simulations (KMC),
62–3
kinetic roughening, 61
lattice polarity, 289–92
LEED see low energy electron diffraction
LEEM see low energy electron microscopy
Lennard-Jones (L-J) potential, 134
local surface potential, 268
long-range diffusion, 64
low energy electron diffraction, 99–100,
232
low energy electron microscopy, 17
magnetocaloric effect (MCE), 365
main domain, 292, 294
maximum strain, 343, 346
Maxtek TM-350/400, 130
Maxwell relations, 365–7, 369, 371–5
Maxwell–Boltzmann formula, 208
MBE see molecular beam epitaxy
mechanistic model, 76
medium-energy ion scattering
spectroscopy, 14
membrane energy, 343, 345, 349, 350,
355, 356
membrane strain, 345, 346, 349, 350, 351,
356, 357, 358
metal-insulater-semiconductor (MIS)
structure, 307
metal–organic vapour phase epitaxy
(MOVPE/MOCVD), 297
migration, 66–7
moiré lattice, 231, 250
molecular beam epitaxy, 3–4
polarity controlled epitaxy of III-
nitrides and ZnO, 288–314
molecular exciton theory, 111–12
Monte Carlo
simulations, 132–7, 142–4, 390–2
ballistic fans, 132–7
ballistic sticking model, 134
chemical vapour deposition, 389
3D scheme, 125–6, 134
particles deposited on small and big
seeds, 137
templated surface containing seeds,
136
Mott–Schottky plot, 308
Mullins-Sekerka instability, 73
Mylar lm, 157
nanostructures
growth dynamics and network
behaviour in thin lms, 384–400
Monte Carlo simulations, 390–2
origins of network behavior, 390
simulation results, 392–9
network behaviour
simulation results, 392–400
degree distributions, average
distance vs degree and distance
distributions for network models,
397
height matrix and corresponding
surface-degree values, 394
thin lm surfaces for chemical
vapour deposition growth, 395
thin lm surfaces grown under
shadowing, re-emission, and
noise effects, 393
weighted average distance vs degree
for network models, 400
thin lms and nanostructure growth
dynamics, 384–400
growth exponent values vs
predictions of thin lm growth
models, 386
Monte Carlo simulated chemical
vapour deposition, 389
Monte Carlo simulations, 390–2
origins during thin lm growth, 390
simulation results, 392–9
sticking coefcient values, 388
thin lm growth under shadowing
and re-emission effects, 386
Nichols-Mullins equation, 68
nitrogen, 186
re-emission, 198–203
non-coplanar mesh design
maximum strain in the interconnect
bridge vs the prestrain
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Au or SiO
2
, 352
silicon, 352
one-dimensional, 343–7
buckled GaAs thin lms on
patterned PDMS substrate, 346
processing steps for precisely
controlled thin lm buckling,
344
two-dimensional, 347–61
bending and membrane strain vs
applied strain, 358
CMOS inverters, 360
encapsulated system subject to
stretching, 355
encapsulated system vs non-
dimensional parameter, 359
fabricating electronics, 348
maximum metal strain interconnect
bridge and Si strain vs prestrain,
354–61
mechanics model prior to
encapsulation, 349
post-encapsulation analysis, 354–61
pre-encapsulation analysis, 348–54
strain in islands when interconnect
bridge relaxes, 353
nucleation
and growth processes of thin lms,
3–17
atomic steps morphological
instability, 15–16
atomic steps motion on growing and
evaporating Si (111) surface,
11–15
atomic steps observation method,
6–8
Burton, Cabrera & Frank model for
evaporating surface, 18–19
epitaxial growth theory, 4–6
future trends, 17
macro-vacancy formation, 20–1
two-dimensional-island nucleation
and ow growth modes, 9–11
nucleation theory, 63
oblique angle deposition
fan-out growth control with substrate
rotations, 144–8
Monte Carlo simulation, 148
PhiSweep technique, 145–6
swing substrate rotation, 147
fan-out growth with oblique angle
incident ux, 140–4
experimental demonstration, 140–2
MC simulations, 142–4
fan-out with normal incident ux,
130–40
ballistic fans growth, big and small
seeds, 139
ballistic sticking model, 138
experimental observation, 130–2
growth exponent, 137–40
Monte Carlo simulation, 132–7
SEM image of ballistic fan with lm
thickness of 700nm, 131
SEM image of ballistic fan with lm
thickness of 800nm, 132
preparation of templated surface,
126–30
seed geometry, 129
SEM images, 128
silicon nanostructured lms growth,
123–151
applications and future trends,
148–51
oblique angle incident ux, 140–4
experimental demonstration fan-out
growth, 140–2
ux alignment, 140
fan-out growth of S on small- and
large-sized W pillars, 142
fan-out growth of Si on W pillars, 141
Monte Carlo simulations, 142–4
ballistic fans linear growth, 144
fan structures with ballistic sticking
model, 143
optical reectance, 158
lm growth, 109–10
GIXD during thin lm growth,
111–13
optical spectroscopy, 88–90
orogenic movement model, 201
Ostwald ripening, 66, 241
oxide polarity, 256–61
ionic system classication according to
Tasker scheme, 257
polarity-healing mechanisms in ionic
systems, 259
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412 Index
© Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2011
vertical cut through a polar system and
electrostatic energy dependence
on polar slab thickness, 258
Zn-terminated ZnO and triangular
islands structure models, 260
oxygen, 186
Parratt algorithm, 108, 109
Pauli repulsion, 279
Pb lms, 35–46
PDMS see polydimethylsiloxane
PET see polyethylene terephthalate
phase-eld formula, 54
phase-eld modeling
anomalous spiral growth
spiral growth images, 58
numerical results, 54–7
anomalous spiral growth, 56–7
spiral and mound growth, 56, 57
thin lm growth, 52–8
modeling, 53–4
numerical results, 54–7
trench formation, 55–6
simulated trench morphology, 55
phase transitions
colloidal crystal thin lms, 155–81
experimental tools, 157–9
future trends, 181
historical survey, 160–78
transition sequence, 178–81
phenomenological model, 76
phenomenological theory, 367
PhiSweep technique, 145–6
SEM images, 146
photoelectron emission microscopy
(PEEM), 91
photolithography, 126–7
photonic crystals, 149–50, 156
plain graphene sheets, 242–7
elementary processes during the
growth, 245–6
formation and stability of rotational
variants, 246–7
graphene interaction with substrate step
edges, 243–5
from graphene islands to plain sheets,
242–3
plane-strain modulus, 345, 349, 351, 357
plasma sputtering processes, 188
plate capacitor model, 258
PMMA see poly-(methylmethacrylate)
polar oxide lms, 261–4
oxide layers sequence, 262
STM topographic images of lms
prepared on metal supports, 263
polar thin lms
adsorption properties, 272–82
Au and Pd atoms on FeO/Pt(111),
279
Au atoms on FeO/Pt(111), 275
binding conguration of Au on
FeO/Pt(111), 277
conductance spectra and calculated
state-density of Au and AuCO
species, 278
metal atoms adsorption on polar
FeO lms, 274–80
MgPc molecules on FeO/Pt(111),
281
molecules adsorption on polar FeO
lms, 280–2
planar Pd island grown on FeO/
Pt(111) lm, 273
two-dimensional pair-distribution
function of Au atoms on FeO
lm, 276
electronic properties and adsorption
behaviour, 256–83
future trends, 282–3
oxide polarity, 256–61
ionic system classication according
to Tasker scheme, 257
three main polarity-healing
mechanisms in ionic systems,
259
vertical cut through a polar
system an electrostatic energy
dependence on polar slab
thickness, 258
Zn-terminated ZnO and structure
models of triangular islands,
260
polar oxide lms, 261–4
oxide layers sequence, 262
STM topographic images of lms
prepared on metal supports, 263
thin oxide lms polarity measurement,
264–72
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413Index
© Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2011
bilayer MgO(111) island grown on
Au(111) and effective barrier
height, 271
conductance spectra with closed
feedback loop and potential
diagram visualising FER
formation, 167
FeO/Pt(111) conductance and
topographic images taken as a
function of bias voltage, 166
model structure for FeO/Pt(111)
system, 270
structure model of coincidence
cell formed between FeO and
Pt(111), 265
tunnel current vs tip-sample
distance for top and hcp domain
of FeO coincidence cell, 269
polarity controlled epitaxy
GaN and AlN, 297–300
effect of surface stoichiometry on
polarity control processes, 300
N-polar AlN epilayer grown in
N-rich conditions, 299
III-nitrides and ZnO by molecular beam
epitaxy, 288–314
InN, 300–9
conduction regions and
calibrated net acceptor/donor
concentrations of InN:Mg layers,
309
electron concentrations and Hall
mobilities of many InN lms,
304
energy band diagram for ECV
characterisation, 307
excitation power dependent
photoluminescence study of
sample, 306
growth regime diagram, 301
InN lms growth rate, 301
MBE grown In-polarity vs
N-polarity InN epilayers, 303
photoluminescence intensity and
spectra, 305
surface morphology of InN with In-
and N-polarities, 302
lattice polarity and detection methods,
289–92
as-grown and 13 h-etched InN
layers with different polarities,
290
simulated CAICISS spectra of InN,
291
wurtzite GaN in different polarities,
289
polarity issues at heteroepitaxy and
homoepitaxy, 292–7
multiple-layer-structure InN lm,
297
photocurrents in four kinds of InN
layers with different polarities,
293
pre-treatment methods of sapphire
substrate before ZnO buffer
layer growth, 294
sapphire atomic structure, 296
ZnO epilayers grown with different
sapphire surface treatments, 295
ZnO, 309–13
growth conditions and polarities of
single-domain ZnO epilayers,
310
RHEED patterns along Al
2
O
3
e-beam azimuth, 312
surface image of ZnO epilayer, 313
poly-(methylmethacrylate), 128, 222
polydimethylsiloxane, 212
polyethylene terephthalate, 220
prestrain, 341
QHAS see quasi-elastic helium-atom
scattering
quantum electronic stability
atomically uniform lms, 22–48
angle-resolved photoemission
spectroscopy, 25–8
bifurcation temperatures, 33
electronic growth, 23–5
future trends, 47–8
particle-in-a-box, 46–7
principles and nanostructure
development, 35–46
quantum thermal stability, 29–35
spectral evolution, 31
uniform lms breakdown, 32
quantum Hall effect (QHE), 225
quantum-mechanical effects, 24
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414 Index
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quasi-elastic helium-atom scattering, 98–9
quenching method, 7
raman spectroscopy, 88
RAS see reection anisotropy
spectroscopy
rate equation (RE), 64
reactive magnetron sputtering
application, 186
copper nitride, 188–9
thin lm growth for thermally unstable
noble metal nitrides, 185–209
real-time observation
experimental techniques, 87–101
microscopy, 90–1
optical spectroscopy techniques,
88–90
scattering methods, 91–101
modelling thin lm deposition process,
83–114
experimental case studies, 101–13
future trends, 113–14
growth and timescales for in situ
observation, 84–7
information sources and advice, 114
time resolved surface science, 83–4
timescales scheme, 86
real-time reectance, 88
reection anisotropy spectroscopy (RAS),
89
reection high-energy electron diffraction,
88, 232, 290, 310–11
reection high-energy electron diffraction
with spot prole analysis, 24
restricted solid-on-solid growth, 138
RHEED see reection high-energy
electron diffraction
RHEED-SPA see reection high-energy
electron diffraction with spot
prole analysis
root-mean-square roughness (RMS), 385
roughening temperature, 61
roughening transition, 61
sapphire, 292
sapphire nitridation, 297, 310, 313
scanning electron microscope, 212
scanning electron microscopy, 6, 127, 158
scanning probe microscopy, 90–1
scanning tunneling microscopy, 24, 232
self-assembly phenomena, 280
SEM see scanning electron microscope
shadowing, 71–2
Si (111), 6–8, 11–15
silicon dioxide, 109–10, 111–13
silicon nanostructured lms
oblique angle deposition, 123–151
applications and future trends,
148–51
fan-out growth with normal incident
ux, 130–40
fan-out growth with oblique angle
incident ux, 140–4
seeds geometry, 129
SEM images, 128
setup, 124
square spirals, swing rotation, 150
substrate rotations for fan-out
growth control, 144–8
templated surface preparation,
126–30
single crystal metal surfaces
epitaxial growth of graphene thin lms,
228–50
Smoluchowski ripening, 242
snapshot state, 391
spectroscopic ellipsometry, 89
static coalescence, 67
step-ow growth mode, 9–11
SEM image of GaAs (001), 9
SEM image sequences, 10
sticking coefcient, 387
STM see scanning tunneling microscopy
Stranski-Krastanov mode, 70
stretchability, 355, 359
stretchable electronics, 340
controlled buckling of thin lms on
compliant substrates, 340–61
nanoribbons/nanomembranes and
non-coplanar mesh designs, 342
maximum strain in the interconnect
bridge vs the prestrain
Au or SiO2, 352
silicon, 352
one-dimensional non-coplanar mesh
design, 343–7
buckled GaAs thin lms on
patterned PDMS substrate, 346
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415Index
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processing steps for precisely
controlled thin lm buckling,
344
two-dimensional non-coplanar mesh
design, 347–61
bending and membrane strain vs
applied strain, 358
CMOS inverters, 360
encapsulated system subject to
stretching, 355
encapsulated system vs non-
dimensional parameter, 359
fabricating electronics, 348
maximum metal strain interconnect
bridge and Si strain vs prestrain,
354–61
mechanics model prior to
encapsulation, 349
post-encapsulation analysis, 354–61
pre-encapsulation analysis, 348–54
strain in islands when interconnect
bridge relaxes, 353
substrate plasticity see crystalline substrate
plasticity
surface roughness
analysis in thin lms, 60–76
future trends, 76
hetero- or non-epitaxial growth,
69–76
homo-epitaxial growth, 61–9
surface X-ray diffraction (SXRD), 232
swing rotation, 145–6
logarithmic plot, 149
Monte Carlo simulation, 148
SXRD see surface X-ray diffraction
synchrotron radiation, 25
Tasker, P.W., 256
Tasker scheme, 256–7, 264
TCR see temperature coefcient of
resistivity
temperature coefcient of resistivity, 203
thermal power, 307
thermodynamics, 61
thermophoresis, 74
thin lm coatings, 384
thin lms
controlled buckling on compliant
substrates for stretchable
electronics, 340–61
nanoribbons/nanomembranes and
non-coplanar mesh designs, 342
one-dimensional non-coplanar mesh
design, 343–7
two-dimensional non-coplanar mesh
design, 347–61
deposition techniques, 384–5
graphene layers, 211–25
30-inch roll-to-roll production for
transparent electrodes, 211–25
large-scale pattern growth
for stretchable transparent
electrodes, 211–17
growth for thermally unstable noble
metal nitrides by reactive
magnetron sputtering, 185–209
Cu
3
N doping by co-sputtering,
203–8
nitrogen re-emission, 198–203
stoichometric Cu
3
N deposition,
190–8
measuring nucleation and growth
processes, 3–17
atomic steps morphological
instability, 15–16
atomic steps motion on growing and
evaporating Si (111) surface,
11–15
atomic steps observation method,
6–8
Burton, Cabrera & Frank model for
evaporating surface, 18–19
epitaxial growth theory, 4–6
future trends, 17
macro-vacancy formation, 20–1
two-dimensional-island nucleation
and ow growth modes, 9–11
modelling deposition processes based
on real-time observation, 83–114
experimental case studies, 101–13
experimental techniques, 87–101
future trends, 113–14
growth and timescales for in situ
observation, 84–7
information sources and advice, 114
time resolved surface science, 83–4
network behaviour and nanostructure
growth dynamics, 384–400
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416 Index
© Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2011
Monte Carlo simulated chemical
vapour deposition, 389
Monte Carlo simulations, 390–2
origins of network behaviour, 390
simulation results, 392–9
sticking coefcient values, 388
thin lm growth under shadowing
and re-emission effects, 386
values of growth exponent in
deposition techniques vs
predictions of thin lm growth
models, 386
phase eld modeling, 52–8
modeling, 53–4
numerical results, 54–7
substrate plasticity and buckling,
317–37
buckling structures localisation,
329–30
diamond-like thin carbon lm
deposited on a glass substrate,
318
experimental observations, 320–2
mechanical properties measurement,
333–6
modelling, 322–9
slip systems, 330–1
straight-sided buckles on 100nm
thick lm, 319
telephone cord buckling patterns on
a Y
2
O
3
thin lm, 319
tensile tests, 331–3
surface roughness evolution analysis,
60–76
future trends, 76
hetero- or non-epitaxial growth,
69–76
homo-epitaxial growth, 61–9
transmission electron microscope, 212,
220
transmission electron microscopy, 91, 192
two-dimensional-island nucleation growth
mode, 9–11
two-phase rotation, 145–6
SEM images, 146
UV photoelectron spectroscopy (UPS),
220
valence electrons, 23
Van der Pauw methods, 215
van-der-Waals force, 99, 233
vapour-liquid-solid growth mechanism, 75
Volmer–Weber mode, 70
X-ray diffraction, 39–40, 43–4, 189, 191
intensities along the Pb(10L) rod during
deposition of Pb on Si(111), 41
X-ray photoelectron spectra (XPS), 220
X-ray photon correlation spectroscopy,
114
X-ray reectivity (XRR), 111, 112
X-ray scattering, 95–6
anti-Bragg simulation, 98
reectivity and growth oscillations, 97
XRD see X-ray diffraction
XRIM see interfacial X-ray microscopy
ZnO
polarity controlled epitaxy, 309–13
polarity controlled epitaxy by
molecular beam epitaxy,
288–314
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