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WINES

Contents

Types of Table Wine

Production of Table Wines

Production of Sparkling Wines

Dietary Importance

Wine Tasting

Types of Table Wine

R S Jackson, Bic, QC, Canada

Background

0001 Classification is a common human trait. Without it,

precise language would be nonexistent. Unfortu-

nately, the natural desire to group wines into logical

categories is fraught with difficulty. Wine is an eclec-

tic collection of grape-based beverages that reflects

local conditions and grape cultivars, as well as adap-

tions to changes in cultural attitudes and techno-

logical advances over several millennia. There is no

evolutionary progression to connect these diverse

products. In the absence of an inherently rational

basis for organizing wines, they have generally been

grouped according to those features that tend to be

relatively stable and easily detected (e.g., color,

sparkle, alcohol content), or origin (e.g., geographic

or varietal).

0002 Classification based on these features has potential

value because it supplies a crude idea of the sensory

attributes of the wine. For example, red wines are

typically more flavorful, drier, and astringent than

white wines, which generally are milder tasting, and

may come in sweet and semisweet styles (red wines

seldom do). The obvious presence of an effervescence

has become culturally associated with celebration.

The mention of a particular grape cultivar or region

can suggest, to those possessing sufficient experience,

the likely presence of a particular set of flavor and

taste characteristics.

0003The problem with empirical systems, such as those

noted above, is that they depend heavily on experi-

ence most consumers lack. Although people readily

distinguish color categories and may recognize geo-

graphic names, they seldom have a clear concept of

their sensory significance. Despite the need for a clear,

rational classification of table wines, the diversity of

wine is too great to permit presentation of a readily

understandable, coherent categorization. What is

feasible is an organization based on those features

that generate the diversity found in table wines.

0004The most critical element influencing the sensory

features of a wine is the winemaker. Starting with red

grapes, a winemaker can make an almost infinite

spectrum of wines – from almost colorless, through

pink, to light red, to dark red–purple, with equivalent

variations in flavor intensity. In addition, the wine-

maker may direct production toward sparkling or

sweet versions of any of the former styles, or choose

to produce sherry- or port-like wines. Because the

effect of the winemaker can be so marked, and unpre-

dictable, it is typically neglected or submerged under

regional or stylistic categories. This is possible be-

cause tradition, if not legal constraints, often limit

winemaker freedom in the style(s) produced.

0005In Europe, most regions have tended to specialize

in the production of one or very few wine styles, made

from one or a few, typically indigenous, grape culti-

vars. This feature has permitted the association of

WINES/Types of Table Wine 6189

particular flavor traits with wines from particular

regions. However, cultivars generally produce similar

flavor attributes wherever they are grown. For

example, ‘Cabernet Sauvignon’ and ‘Chardonnay’

often produce wines undistinguishable from those

produced in their homelands of Bordeaux and Bur-

gundy, respectively. Thus, the predictive value of var-

ietal origin on sensory attributes depends more on the

skill of the winemaker, and the maturity and health of

the grapes, than geographic origin. Although wine-

maker skill is difficult to quantify, grape maturity and

health are often quantified for consumers in vintage

ranking. The central roles of grape variety and pro-

duction style are outlined in Figure 1 and discussed

below.

Varietal Origin

0006 In a fundamental sense, wine taxonomy should be

based on the cultivar or cultivars used in their pro-

duction. Varietal origin sets the outer limits of the

wine’s sensory attributes. Unfortunately, most grape

cultivars do not, or are not known to, possess a

readily distinguishable varietal aroma. Thus, varietal

origin is of significance only for those cultivars that

possess unique aromatic potential. Several of the

better known of these are briefly noted below.

Red Cultivars

0007 ‘Cabernet Sauvignon’ is the most well-known

member of the Carmenet family of grape cultivars.

Its renown comes from its involvement in most Bor-

deaux wines (and equivalents). Other members of the

family include ‘Merlot’ and ‘Malbec.’ Their inclusion

in Bordeaux blends moderates the tannin content

donated primarily by ‘Cabernet Sauvignon.’ The ten-

dency of ‘Merlot’ to mature more quickly has made it

a popular substitute for ‘Cabernet Sauvignon.’ Under

optimal conditions, ‘Cabernet Sauvignon’ yields a

fragrant wine possessing a blackcurrant aroma.

Under less favorable conditions, it generates a bell-

pepper aroma. ‘Cabernet Sauvignon’ probably is

the result of an accidental crossing between grapes

related to, if not identical with, ‘Cabernet Franc’ and

‘Sauvignon blanc.’

0008 ‘Gamay noir a

jus blanc’ is the primary, white-

juiced Gamay cultivar. Its reputation has risen in

association with the increased popularity of Beaujo-

lais wines. Crushed and fermented by standard pro-

cedures, ‘Gamay’ produces a light red wine with few

distinctive characteristics. However, when processed

by carbonic maceration, it yields a distinctively fruity

wine. Most of these features come from the grape-

berry fermentation phase of carbonic maceration.

0009‘Nebbiolo’ is generally acknowledged as producing

the most highly regarded red wine in north-western

Italy. With traditional vinification, it produces a wine

high in acid and tannin content that requires years to

mellow. The color has a tendency to oxidize rapidly.

Common aroma descriptors include tar, violets, and

truffles.

0010‘Pinot noir’ is the most famous Noirien grape var-

iety. It is particularly environmentally sensitive, pro-

ducing its ‘typical’ fragrance (beets, peppermint, or

cherries) only occasionally. The cultivar exists as a

varied collection of distinctive clones. Usually, the

more prostrate, lower-yielding clones produce more

flavorful wines. The upright, higher-yielding clones

are more suited to the production of rose

and spark-

ling wines. The South African cultivar, ‘Pinotage,’ is a

cross between ‘Pinot noir’ and ‘Cinsaut.’

0011‘Sangiovese’ is an ancient cultivar consisting of

many distinctive clones, grown extensively through-

out central Italy. It is most well known for the light- to

full-bodied wines from Chianti, but also produces

many fine red wines elsewhere in Italy. Under optimal

conditions, it yields a wine possessing an aroma rem-

iniscent of cherries, violets, and licorice. ‘Sangiovese’

is also grown under local synonyms, such as ‘Bru-

nello’ and ‘Prugnolo,’ used in producing Brunello

di Montalcino and Vino Nobile di Montepulciano

wines, respectively.

0012‘Shiraz’ (‘Syrah’ in France) has become famous for

yielding a deep red tannic wine with long aging po-

tential in Australia. This has helped ‘Syrah’ regain the

prominence it once held in the Rho

ne Valley of

France. Its wines are peppery with aspects reminis-

cent of violets, raspberries, and currants.

0013‘Tempranillo’ is probably the finest Spanish red-

grape variety. Under favorable conditions, it yields a

delicate, subtle wine that ages well. It is the most

important red cultivar in Rioja. Outside Spain, it is

primarily grown in Argentina. In California, it usu-

ally goes under the name ‘Valdepen

as.’‘Tempranillo’

generates an aroma distinguished by a complex,

berry-jam fragrance, with nuances of citrus and

incense.

0014‘Zinfandel’ is extensively grown in California. Its

European counterpart is probably the Italian variety

‘Primitivo,’ or its Hungarian equivalent, ‘Plavac.’

‘Zinfandel’ is used to produce a wide range of wines,

from ports to light blush wines. In rose

versions, it

shows a raspberry fragrance, whereas full-bodied red

wines possess rich berry flavors.

White Cultivars

0015‘Chardonnay’ is the most famous white member of

the Noirien family of cultivars. It not only produces

6190 WINES/Types of Table Wine

Wine types

Grape varieties

(examples)

'Parellada'

Stylistic expression

Early maturation

Standard

(short maceration)

Carbonic macerationGoverno

Standard

(long maceration

with seeds and skins,

maturation without addition

of oak character)

Potential for long aging

Recioto process

(overmaturation of

grapes with some

botrytization)

Standard

(long maceration

with seeds and skins,

maturation in oak)

e.g., Bordeaux,

premium 'Cabernet Sauvignon,'

'Shiraz'

e.g., Amarone

e.g., Barolo

e.g., light Chianti

e.g., Beaujolais

Majority of red wines

e.g., white Burgundy,

premium 'Chardonnay'

e.g., traditional

white Rioja

Standard

(minimal skin contact,

cool fermentation)

White

Red

'Nebbiolo'

'Sangiovese' 'Tempranillo'

Carmenets

(e.g., 'Meriot,'

'Cabernet Sauvignon

Noiriens

(e.g., 'Gamay', 'Pinot noir')

'Riesling'

Messiles

(e.g., 'Chenin blanc,'

'Sauvignon blanc')

'Viura'

White

Potential for long aging

Freeze concentration

e.g., ausiese

Botrytization

e.g., lcewine

Standard

(several years' maturation

in large oak cooperage,

slight oxidation)

Standard

(up to 24 h skin contact,

cool fermentation in-barrel,

sur lies maturation)

'Muscats'

Noiriens

(e.g., 'Chardonnay')

Serines

(e.g., 'Sirah')

Rose

(e.g., Gewurztraminer)

Rhenans

e.g., 'Muller-Thurgau',

most white wines

Figure 1 Major sources of the different types of table wine.

fig0001

wines with an appealing fruit fragrance, but also

tends to do well world-wide. In addition to producing

fine table wines, it yields one of the finest sparkling

wines (champagne). Under optimal conditions, the

wine develops aspects reminiscent of various fruits,

including apple, peach, and melon.

0016 ‘Mu

ller-Thurgau’ is possibly the most well-known

modern V. vinifera cultivar, constituting about 30%

of German hectarage. It is most likely a crossing

between ‘Riesling’ and ‘Chasselas de Courtillier.’ Its

mild acidity, subtle fruity fragrance, and early matur-

ity are ideal for producing light wines in cooler

climates.

0017 ‘Muscat blanc’ is one of many members of the

Muscat family of cultivars. Their aroma is so distinct-

ive that it is described in terms of the cultivar name –

muscaty. Because of the intense flavor, slight bitterness,

and tendency to oxidize, Muscat grapes have been

used most commonly in producing dessert wines.

The reduced bitterness and lower oxidation suscepti-

bility of the new Muscat cultivar, ‘Symphony,’ permit

the production of dryer wines with a better aging

potential. ‘Moscato bianco’ is the primary variety

used in the flourishing sparkling wine industry in

Asti, Italy.

0018 ‘Parellada’ is a variety distinctive to the Catalonian

region of Spain. It produces an aroma that is apple- to

citrus-like in character, occasionally showing hints of

licorice or cinnamon.

0019 ‘Pinot gris’ and ‘Pinot blanc’ are color mutants of

‘Pinot noir.’ They are both cultivated throughout the

cooler climatic regions of Europe for the production

of dry, botrytized, and sparkling wines. ‘Pinot gris’

typically yields subtly fragrant wines with aspects of

passion fruit, whereas ‘Pinot blanc’ is more fruity,

with suggestions of hard cheese.

0020 ‘Riesling’ is without doubt Germany’s most highly

respected grape variety. It can produce fresh, aro-

matic, well-aged wines, which can vary from dry to

sweet. Its complex floral aroma, commonly reminis-

cent of roses and pine, has made it acclaimed

throughout central Europe and much of the world.

Outside Germany, its largest plantings are in Califor-

nia and Australia.

0021 ‘Sauvignon blanc’ is one of the main white Carme-

net varieties in Bordeaux, and the principal white

cultivar in the upper Loire Valley. It has become

popular in California and New Zealand in recent

years. Often, its aroma shows elements of green

peppers, as well as a herbaceous aspect, especially in

cooler climates. Better clones possess a subtly floral

character.

0022 ‘Traminer’ is a distinctively aromatic cultivar

grown throughout the cooler regions of Europe and

much of the world. Although possessing a rose blush

in the skin, it produces a white wine. ‘Traminer’ is

fermented to produce both dry and sweet styles,

depending on regional preferences. Intensely fragrant

(‘Gewu

rztraminer’) clones generally possess an

aroma resembling lichi fruit.

0023‘Viognier’ has become popular in the USA and

Australia, following its languishing in the Rho

Valley since the phylloxera epidemic of the late

1800s. The wine matures quickly and is characterized

by the development a fragrant peach to apricot aroma.

0024‘Viura’ is the main white variety cultivated in

Rioja. In cooler areas, it produces a fresh wine pos-

sessing a subtle floral aroma with aspects of citron.

After extended aging in large wood cooperage, it

develops a golden color and rich butterscotch to

banana fragrance that characterizes the traditional

white wines of Rioja.

Stylistic Origin

0025Although varietal attributes set the outer limits of a

wine’s characteristics, their expression may be influ-

enced by growing conditions. Equally, the way in

which varietal attributes exhibit themselves depends

on grape health and maturity, how the grapes are

transformed into wine, and how the wine is subse-

quently stored. Thus, after varietal origin, vintage

conditions and production style are the most import-

ant features establishing the features that characterize

the wine.

0026Because wine styles have arisen independently,

there is no obvious or evolutionary logic by which

wine can be classified. For simplicity, they can be

organized temporally, relative to whether they occur

before, during, or after grape fermentation.

Type Reflecting Procedures Before Fermentation

0027One of the oldest processes that may be involved in

wine production is carbonic maceration. This occurs

whenever whole grapes collect in large piles (in the

absence of oxygen). Before the mid-1800s, carbonic

maceration was involved in the production of essen-

tially all wines. Inefficient manual crushing resulted

in many whole grapes remaining after crushing. Thus,

when yeast fermentation consumed the oxygen dis-

solved in the freed juice, whole grapes began a grape-

cell fermentation (carbonic maceration). Carbonic

maceration generates a unique set of aromatic com-

pounds that give the wine a distinct, raspberry–kirsch

fragrance. When the majority of the grapes undergo

carbonic maceration, as in the production of Beaujo-

lais wines, the fruity aromas generated often mask the

presence of varietal aromas. Only as the wine ages,

and grape-fermentation odors fade, may a varietal

character express itself. Most Beaujolais wines do

6192 WINES/Types of Table Wine

not age well because the cultivar from which they are

made (‘Gamay noir’) possesses little varietal aroma to

replace the fading carbonic maceration fragrance.

0028 Another, technique that can fundamentally modify

a wine’s sensory attributes is over-maturation. Over-

maturation generally occurs by leaving the grapes on

the vine past maturity (late-harvest). For white wines,

it is used to produce a more flavorful, usually sweet

wine. Its most classic expression is in the production

of botrytized wines, such as the ausleses of Germany,

the Tokaji of Hungary, and the Sauternes of France.

During over-maturation, infection by the fungus

Botrytis cinerea concentrates the juice, reducing the

varietal aroma, and generating its own unique apri-

cot, honey-like fragrance. Late-harvest wines not in-

volving the intervention of Botrytis cinerea generally

have only an enhanced over-matured varietal aroma.

Ice wines (eisweins) are a distinctive category of late-

harvest wines. They undergo a particularly long (up

to several months) over-maturation on the vine, until

frigid (7to8



C) conditions freeze the grapes. The

grapes are harvested and crushed while frozen to

extract only the highly concentrated juice (most of

the water in the grapes remaining in the crusher as ice).

0029 Although more commonly used in the production

of white wines, over-maturation is occasionally

employed in the making of particular red wines. For

example, in the production of Chianti, a portion of

the harvest may be set aside to slowly dry and over-

mature. Most of the crop is crushed and fermented

into wine following standard procedures. A month or

so later, the over-matured portion of the crop is

crushed, begins fermentation, and is added to the

majority of the harvest that usually has just com-

pleted fermentation. The effect of the second fermen-

tation is to produce a wine that is fruitier and matures

earlier than otherwise. This process, called the

governo process, is less popular than in the past be-

cause it does not promote aging potential – the touch-

stone of quality for most connoisseurs.

0030 In Veneto and, to a lesser extent, in Lombardy, a

technique called the recioto (appassimento) process

involves the exclusive use of over-matured grapes.

Especially selected mature clusters are laid on trays

in thin layers, and the trays stacked in well-ventilated,

unheated, storage sheds. The grapes are left to dry

and over-mature slowly for several months. Fre-

quently, a portion of the grapes undergo a slow

transformation under the action of Botrytis cinerea.

This results in a marked increase in the concentration

of glycerol and sugars, as well as the oxidation of

grape phenolics. The latter appears to generate sev-

eral volatile phenols that give the wine its distinctive

tulip–daffodil pungency. After several months, the

grapes are crushed and fermented to produce dry,

semisweet, or sparkling wines. The most commonly

exported version is the dry Recioto della Valpolicella

Amarone.

Type Reflecting Conditions Immediately Following

Crushing

0031One of the most fundamental decisions in winemak-

ing involves the conditions immediately following

crushing. For white wines, the juice is separated from

the seeds and skins shortly after crushing and before

fermentation begins. In contrast, the juice is left in

contact with the seeds and skins throughout most of

the fermentation period for the production of red

wine.

0032Separation of the juice from the seeds and skins,

directly after crushing, limits the uptake of most

grape flavorants (aroma), and yields an almost color-

less wine. In contrast, leaving the juice in contact with

the seeds and skins progressively permits the extrac-

tion of flavorants and colorants, notably from the

skins. For white wines, skin contact (maceration) is

short (often only a few hours) to minimize the uptake

of bitter-tasting phenolics.

Type Reflecting Conditions During Fermentation

0033The duration of joint fermentation and maceration

significantly affects a red wine’s characteristics.

Gently pressing to remove the seeds and skins imme-

diately after crushing may result in the production of

a white wine. Maceration with the skins for the first

24–48 h usually generates a rose

wine. Standard red

wines typically undergo maceration for 4–5 days,

during which fermentation becomes fully active.

Depending on the efficiency of the juice–skin contact,

moderate to long aging, deeply pigmented wines

are produced. Traditionally, wines designed for long

aging have been left on the seeds and skins for up-

wards of 2–3 weeks. This may generate flavorful

wines, but prolonged maturation is required before

their high tannin content ‘softens.’ Newer techniques

optimize flavor and pigment uptake without the

extraction of excessive amounts of bitter, astringent

tannins. Most varietal flavors are dissolved from the

skins within about 3–5 days, whereas tannins are

removed more slowly.

0034Another condition that fundamentally affects the

characteristics of a wine is fermentation temperature.

White wines are typically fermented at cooler tem-

peratures than red wines. Cool temperatures (about



C) enhance the production and retention of ‘fruit’

esters synthesized by yeasts, giving the wine a fruity

fragrance. This is particularly important for white

wines produced from cultivars with little distinctive

aroma. Wines from aromatically unique varieties may

be fermented at somewhat higher temperatures to

WINES/Types of Table Wine 6193

accentuate the aroma versus general fruitiness. Red

wines often are fermented at warm (about 22–25



temperatures to facilitate yeast growth in the presence

of grape phenolics, and to promote pigment and

flavor extraction from the skins.

0035 Several other fermentation conditions influence the

stylistic expression of a wine. However, most are so

extensively, but variably, used across varietal and

regional styles as to negate their value in characteriz-

ing wine types. Examples are the use of different yeast

strains, the employment of malolactic fermentation,

and the use of in-barrel vs. tank fermentation.

Type Reflecting Conditions During Maturation

0036 For the majority of wines designed for early con-

sumption, maturation prior to bottling typically

occurs in stainless steel tanks, or other inert cooper-

age. This avoids the uptake of additional tannins

from wood cooperage that can require extensive

aging to mellow. It also avoids the extraction of oak

flavors that might mask the wine’s mild fragrance.

0037 Wines benefiting from extended aging, or possess-

ing a distinct varietal aroma, are often aged in oak

cooperage. For white wines, this is seldom more than

for 6–12 months. This may or may not be combined

with sur lies maturation (3–6 months’ contact with

the dead and dying yeast cells following the end of

fermentation). The procedure is often thought to en-

hance the wine’s flavor complexity. For red wines,

maturation often occurs in new or used oak barrels

(approximately 250-l capacity), for a period of up to

2 years. An older procedure, less commonly used

today, is maturation in large (1000–10 000 l) oak

tanks. The latter supplies less oak character to the

wine, while providing slower but increased moderate

oxidation. In-barrel maturation accentuates the var-

ietal character of several major grape cultivars, such

as ‘Cabernet Sauvignon,’ whereas tank maturation

tends to moderate varietal distinctiveness.

Geographic Expression

0038 Although it is often implied that geographic wine

expressions are clearly recognizable, this is rarely

the case. Even experienced wine tasters often fail to

identify the varietal origin of wines, let alone their

regional variations. If one knows that the wines come

from a single region, are made from the same culti-

vars, and have been produced using similar tech-

niques, it may be possible, under ideal conditions, to

differentiate subregional expressions. However, if the

varietal wines come from several different countries,

it is unlikely that the individual geographic origins of

the wines can be consistently recognizable. Even the

more distinctive varietal feature of many New World

wines is not dependable. Yearly variations in weather

conditions can produce greater fluctuations in wine

attributes than climatic differences between regions.

0039The prominence given to geographic origin in most

wine classifications comes from the familiarity that

consumers have, or can obtain, with regional names.

As already noted, in several European regions, legis-

lation limits the use of grape cultivars and wine pro-

duction techniques. Although this helps maintain

stylistic consistency, it limits innovation.

Appellation Control (AC) Laws

0040The frequent grouping of wine by geographic origin,

and the economic value of clear distinction (if only by

name), have combined to promote the establishment

of appellation control laws. Although these laws vary

considerably from country to country, and even from

region to region, they always act as a certification of

geographic origin. They may also stipulate varietal

composition, conditions of grape culture, as well as

fermentation and wine-processing procedures. Al-

though important, what is of greater general interest

is how these laws reflect cultural views on the origins

of wine quality.

0041In most established European regions, it is often

assumed that historically accepted practices and geo-

graphic features define wine quality. However, they

have limited improvement, leading to less regulated

regions rapidly reaching and surpassing the quality of

established regions. Furthermore, weather conditions

can be so variable as to nullify the law’s attempt to

‘guarantee’ wine quality. Finally, in the absence of

uniform yearly assessments of wine quality, AC laws

effectively assure only geographic authenticity.

0042In Europe, appellation control laws fall into

two philosophically different groups. One ascribes

greatest importance to geographic features (e.g.,

France, Italy, and Spain), whereas the other accentu-

ates the importance of grape maturity (e.g., Germany

and Austria).

0043In the French version, regions are ranked relative to

geography (incorporating traditional winemaking

and grape-growing procedures). Regions are classed

according to historic perceptions of their winemaking

quality – premium (AC), superior (VDQS, vins de

li-

mite

s de qualite

supe

rieure), good (vins de pays), and

basic (vins de table). AC regions are often subdivided,

with smaller regions viewed as producing more dis-

tinctive (and better) wines than those from larger

regions. This subdivision on geographic origin may

be taken down to single vineyards. In most cases,

though, it goes down only to single parishes or town-

ships. As the area becomes smaller, production regu-

lations often become more precise and restrictive.

6194 WINES/Types of Table Wine

0044 In addition to the classification of regions, individ-

ual vineyards (or wineries) may be hierarchically

ordered. The most well-known example is the 1855

grouping of some Bordeaux vineyards. This arrange-

ment is called the cru classe

system. As in AC desig-

nations, the cru classe

system is based on the historic

potential of the vineyards to produce quality wine.

Thus, yearly sensory assessments of wine quality are

not considered necessary for use of the designations.

0045 In Italy, most wines are classified heirarchically

into DOCG (denominazione di origine controllata e

garantita), DOC (denominazione di origine control-

lata), IGP (indicazione geografica tipica), and Vino da

Tavola categories. One of the unique features of the

Italian AC system is the potential pyramidal intercon-

nection. Wine production exceeding the quantities

stipulated in the regulations progressively demotes

the wine to lower and lower categories. Use of the

highest (DOCG) designation requires that the wine

pass yearly governmental sensory evaluation tests.

0046 In the Germanic concept of quality, greatest im-

portance is placed on grape maturity. Thus, it has a

prominent place, along with geographic origin, in the

naming of wines. Correspondingly, annual achieve-

ment of a minimum score on a governmental sensory

evaluation test is required before permission is

granted to use any of the QbA (qualita

tswein bes-

timmter anbaugebietes) or QmP (qualita

tswein mit

pra

dikat) quality designations. Historical reputation

has no influence on the quality or geographic desig-

nations in the German system.

0047 Most New World countries are developing AC

regulations. In most instances, they do not have the

same significance as their European equivalents. This

results from the diversity of wine styles produced

within the designated regions. Thus, New World

appellation laws generally certify only geographic

origin. This, however, achieves the primary advan-

tage of appellation designations – nominal differenti-

ation of regional wines in the marketplace.

See also: Grapes; Wines: Production of Table Wines;

Dietary Importance; Yeasts

Further Reading

Amerine MA and Singleton VL (1977) Wine – An Introduc-

tion, 2nd edn. Berkeley, CA: University of California

Press.

Anonymous (1987) Symposium ‘Les Appellations d’Ori-

gine Historiques.’ Paris: Office International de la

Vigne et du Vin.

Clarke O (1995) Oz Clarke’s Wine Atlas. Boston, MA:

Little Brown.

Jackson RS (2000) Wine Science: Principles, Practice, Per-

ception, 2nd edn. San Diego, CA: Academic Press.

Johnson H and Halliday J (1992) The Vintner’s Art. New

York: Simon & Schuster.

Johnson H and Robinson J (2001) The World Atlas of

Wine, 5th edn. London: Mitchell Beazley.

Production of Table Wines

K Wucherpfennig, Baumann-Gonser-Foundation,

Wiesbaden, Germany

Introduction

0001Wine is legally defined as the product that is re-

covered exclusively by complete or partial alcoholic

fermentation of the fresh, treated grapes or the grape

must. If alcohol is added to the wine, e.g., in the form

of distillate of wine, dessert wine is obtained with an

alcohol content between 15 and 22% by volume

(sherry, port, etc.). If a second fermentation is carried

out without the escape of the formed carbon dioxide,

champagne or sekt is produced. If carbon dioxide is

artificially introduced, pearl wine or simple sparkling

wine is obtained. (See Port: The Product and its Manu-

facture; Sherry: The Product and its Manufacture;

Wines: Production of Sparkling Wines.)

0002Wines, dessert wines, pearl wines, and sparkling

wines can be further processed to vinous beverages.

These are products in which the proportion of wine is

in excess of 50%. The best known products of this

group are the aromatized wines such as vermouth.

(See Vermouth.)

0003If fruits or other sugar- or starch-containing raw

materials are processed to alcoholic beverages, the

end product is not wine within the meaning of the

pertinent wine legislation, but a beverage similar to

wine. These include the fruit wines, the main repre-

sentative being cider.

0004Table, land, and quality wines made from grapes

make up by far the largest category among the differ-

ent sorts of wine. For this reason, the main focus will

be on their method of production. The production of,

for example, fruit wines is very similar, however.

Viticulture

0005The vine belongs to the genus Vitis, of which 50–60

species are known. One of these is the European vine,

Vitis vinifera, from which a large number of varieties

stem. Over the centuries, the variety best suited to the

growing area has been selected, i.e., the variety that

offers the highest quality together with adequate

potential crop and resistance to diseases of the vine.

WINES/Production of Table Wines 6195

Vine Varieties

0006 As the Vitis vinifera varieties used for the produc-

tion of high-quality wines are susceptible to attack

by the phylloxera, they can only be grown grafted

on to the stock of American vine. World-wide, a

group of 15 vine varieties has established itself for

the production of red wines, and a group of 20 vine

varieties has proved suitable for the production of

white wines. Scientific breeding of vines has been

practiced since 1900 with the aim of improving the

performance of the vine with respect to yield and

quality.

Methods of Cultivation

0007 In the cultivation of vines, certain planting systems

and forms of training are applied with a view to

attaining regular and high-quality crops. It must be

insured that the sprouting flower buds with two

bunches per shoot on average are exposed to as much

sun as possible, and that every shoot has about 10–15

leaves.

Maturity and Vintage

0008 In the course of several growth stages, the setting

gives rise to the grape consisting of the skin (exocarp),

the pulp (mesocarp), and two to four seeds. The

largest part of the berry is the succulent pulp. The

grape increases most in weight during the final

growth stage; sugar (glucose and fructose) is stored,

and water is absorbed, while the concentration of

total acid and malic acid decreases substantially.

The grapes can be considered physiologically

ripe when a sugar content of 75–80



Oechsle

(18.20–20.47



Brix) is reached, corresponding to

an alcohol content of 9% by volume. From this

point onwards, the stems develop into mature cane,

and nutritious matter from the soil and the sugar

formed in the leaves can no longer penetrate into

the grapes. If the grapes have reached the state of

full ripeness and are not harvested immediately,

their constituents are concentrated owing to evapor-

ation of water. The grapes become overripe and soft,

as a result of which the sugar content increases. Fur-

ther concentration can take place if the grapes are

attacked by the fungus, Botrytis cinerea. If this

happens at an early stage, it causes ‘grey rot,’ which

is responsible for a deterioration in quality; however,

if the disease strikes at a late stage, the so-called

‘noble rot’ develops, which is desirable in special

areas, e.g., for the production of Sauterne. (See

Ripening of Fruit.)

0009 Choosing the right time for harvesting is of par-

ticular significance, as the current consensus of opin-

ion is that the volume of alcohol to be expected from

the sugar content in the grapes determines the

quality The more sugar the grapes contain when

harvested, the higher the quality rating of the wine

produced.

0010The vintage has been carried out manually for

centuries. However, as an expense of work of 250 h

1

is required, there is an increasing tendency to use

machines that straddle the rows of vines and shake off

the bunches of grapes. The yield varies between 60

and 150 hl ha

1

, depending on the vine variety,

climate, soil, and care.

Processing of White Wine

0011The flow chart of white wine processing is shown in

Figure 1. After harvesting, the grapes should prefer-

ably be transported to the press room in an uncrushed

state to prevent undesirable excessive extraction of

tannins from the stems and seeds (1). There, they are

weighed and crushed. The must weight is also deter-

mined at this point, which is an important criterion

for the quality of the subsequent wine.

Pressing

0012The grapes are often stemmed (2) to produce wines

with a low tannin content, although this is not abso-

lutely essential. The crushed grapes are then trans-

ported direct into the press or into storage tanks

or straining bins (3). (See Tannins and Polyphenols.)

0013The untreated or treated crushed grapes can be

pressed in discontinuously operating horizontal

presses. These comprise a perforated press cage in

which one or two mechanically or hydraulically

actuated pressure plates gradually reduce the space

available to the crushed grapes, causing the must

to be pressed through the fine slots (4).

0014In the recently introduced pneumatic presses, the

crushed grapes are pressed by air pressure acting on a

plastic membrane against a perforated metal plate

and are, therefore, pressed extremely gently. Good

must and wine qualities can be attained using con-

tinuous, large-diameter screw presses that rotate at a

low speed.

0015Freshly pressed musts still contain insoluble parts

of the cellular tissue, protein–tannin compounds,

microorganisms, crystal compounds, e.g. tartar, dirt

particles, and substances of an unknown nature that

can adversely affect the quality of the wine. For this

reason, they are preclarified by sedimentation, defe-

cation, or centrifugation (6).

0016During the sedimentation, which takes about 10 h,

pectolytic enzymes natural to the fruit degrade pectic

substances and other cell wall components that

would later stabilize the lees.

6196 WINES/Production of Table Wines

Amelioration of Alcohol Content and Regulation of

Acidity

0017 Freshly pressed musts frequently exhibit a disharmo-

nious sugar–acid ratio. Musts from northern growing

areas often have too much acid, and musts from more

southern areas too little. Thus, during climatically

unfavorable vintages, neither is likely to produce the

required alcohol content. For this reason, the acid

content must be regulated and the sugar content in-

creased. To compensate for adding acid (tartaric or

citric) to the wine, a deacidification process is nor-

mally carried out chemically using calcium carbon-

ate, but treatment of the must is the preferred option.

(See Acids: Natural Acids and Acidulants.)

0018To compensate for insuffiency of natural alcohol,

it is permissible in most wine-growing countries to

Vintage Transportation Acceptance weighing

Stemming crushing2

Stems

First pressings

Straining

Press

Free run juice

<60−70%

Pressed must

65−85%

Free run juice

>30−40%

Pomace

15−35%

15 13

10−20%

Bottling

Settling

defecation

Centrifuging

3−5%

Alcoholic

fermentation

Fining

sulfiting

Grape

juice

Ready for

bottling

Malolactic

fermentation

Clarification

Racking

Sterilizing filter

fig0001 Figure 1 Flow sheet of processing for white wines according to Troost G (1988) Technologie des Weines, 6th edn. Stuttgart: Eugen

Ulmer. (1) Acceptance of grapes; (2) stemming, crushing; (3) straining; (4) pressing; (5) settling, defecation; (6) centrifugation; (7)

alcoholic fermentation; (8) malolactic fermentation; (9) clarification; (10) racking; (11) fining; (12) sulfiting; (13) reading for filling; (14)

sterilizing filter; (15) bottling.

WINES/Production of Table Wines 6197

add sugar (saccharose) to the crushed grapes, must,

or wine (chaptalization). The sugar is intended

exclusively for alcoholic fermentation and not as a

sweetener.

Alcoholic Fermentation

0019 The most important stage in wine processing is the

alcoholic fermentation, i.e., the anaerobic degrad-

ation of sugar typical of yeasts, such as Saccharo-

myces cerevisiae.

0020 Fermentation of grape must or crushed grapes is

possible with the mixture of yeast strains that occur

on the skins, or within damaged grapes. This is re-

ferred to as ‘spontaneous fermentation.’ In order to

avoid the risks associated with this type of fermenta-

tion, yeast strains selected especially for their suit-

ability for use in wine processing are used. The

fermentable monosaccharides – glucose and fructose

– which are present in a ratio of approximately 1:1,

predominate. Saccharose (sucrose) added to low-

sugar musts is likewise fermented owing to the high

content of b-fructofuranosidase (invertase) in yeasts.

0021 While the theoretical yield through fermentation of

these hexoses amounts to 51.1% ethanol (by weight)

and 48.9% CO

(by weight), the actual alcohol yield

is only around 47%. Normally, ‘spontaneous fermen-

tation’ can scarcely produce more than 17.5% by

volume in a wine.

0022 The large difference between the theoretical and

practical yields of ethanol is attributable to loss of

ethanol during fermentation, and the formation

of fermentation byproducts. One of the most import-

ant fermentation byproducts is glycerol, which is a

major contributory factor in forming the body of the

wine. Although smaller in volume, the byproducts

that react with sulfurous acid are equally important.

0023 Heat is generated during fermentation of the must,

and in the case of large must volumes, the must has to

be cooled. Heating of the fermentation product accel-

erates the fermentation process up to a certain point.

The fermentation activity of most yeast strains

decreases at must temperatures in excess of 30



Once fermentation has finished, the yeast settles on

the tank bottom.

Malolactic Fermentation

0024 After alcoholic fermentation and a storage time of

several weeks, low-acidity wines with a pH above

3.3 often experience a decrease in the acid content.

This is due not only to precipitation of the acid potas-

sium salt of tartaric acid, but primarily to the action

of lactic acid bacteria of the genera Lactobacillus,

Leuconostoc or Pediococcus. This causes fermenta-

tion of the l-malic acid to l-lactic acid and carbon

dioxide (8). (See Lactic Acid Bacteria.)

0025Since the malolactic fermentation usually takes

place after the alcoholic fermentation, vigorous

carbon dioxide production can stimulate a secondary

fermentation. In France and Switzerland, this is con-

sciously initiated and forced, while opinion is divided

in other countries, especially in the case of white

wine. By contrast, this ‘second fermentation’ is prac-

tically obligatory for red wines.

Processing of Rose

and Red Wine

0026The flow chart for rose

and red wine processing is

shown in Figure 2. If red grapes are pressed in the

same way as described for white wines, pale-pink

musts are obtained from which rose

wines are pro-

duced (1, 2, 4). Although they are produced from red

grapes, they are actually classified as white wines as

regards their components and the technology applied.

0027As the pigments of red grapes are in the skin, the

cells of the skin must be made permeable, which is

achieved by fermenting or heating the crushed grapes

(3, 6). (See Colorants (Colourants): Properties and

Determination of Natural Pigments.)

Fermentation on Skins

0028The classical process for the production of red wines

is so-called ‘fermentation on the skins’ (6). The initial

processing steps utilize the same methods and ma-

chines as in the production of white wine and com-

prise vintage, transport, grape receiving, stemming,

and crushing (1, 2).

0029In fermentation on the skins, the red grapes are not

pressed to must before the alcoholic fermentation.

The crushed grapes are partially or completely

fermented, in which process, the alcohol produced

extracts the pigments (6).

0030The crushed grapes are usually left to ferment

spontaneously with the natural mixture of yeast

strains in a special fermentation tank. In the case of

fermentation on the skins, the carbon dioxide bubbles

convey the pulp and skin to the surface of the fermen-

tation product, producing a so-called ‘head’ or ‘cap,’

which must be kept below the surface of the fermen-

tation liquid. A number of methods can be employed

to bring the skins in contact with the color-extracting

liquid, such as the use of submerged caps, pumps,

agitators, mechanical removal of the floating head

by screw conveyors or rakes, or sudden decompression

of the compressed carbon dioxide in the tank (6, 7).

Heating of Crushed Grapes

0031In the increasingly widespread new process for red

wine production of heating the crushed grapes, the

stemmed and crushed grapes are conveyed to the

6198 WINES/Production of Table Wines