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‘setts.’ It is also grown both as a pure crop and as an

intercrop. It may be grown in rotation with paddy-

rice, samai (Panicum miliare). If irrigation facilities

are available, ginger may be rotated with vegetables,

chilli, groundnut, ragi (Eleucine coracana) and maize.

Ginger is sometimes grown mixed with turmeric,

which grows rapidly early on and provides partial

shade to the developing ginger. It is harvested at dif-

ferent stages depending upon the requirements of the

user. Green ginger is harvested between 5 and 7

months after sowing, and the rhizomes are used for

preservation as preserved ginger. Final harvesting is

carried out after 8–10 months from planting for the

production of dried ginger. Shriveling, yellowing, and

withering of the leaves, accompanied by drying and

lodging of the aerial shoots, indicate maturity of the

rhizomes.

000 6 The maturity of the rhizome has a significant influ-

ence on both its quality characteristics and its suit-

ability for processing into preserved or dried ginger.

The optimum time for harvesting ginger in India is

245–260 days from planting, after which the rhi-

zomes become more fibrous. Harvesting of the

mature ginger is mostly done by hand using a spade,

hoe, or digging fork. In advanced countries, the late

crop is also harvested by mechanical diggers. Extra

care is required for the harvesting of healthy rhi-

zomes. The soil, roots and shoots are subsequently

removed, and the rhizomes are carefully washed and

dried for storage. See Plates 1 and 2.

000 7 Several commercial types of ginger are recognized

in cultivation, which are generally named after the

localities where they are grown. The types with less

fiber, which varies from 1.7 to 9.0%, have a higher

demand. Some of the prized types of ginger in inter-

national trade include Jamaican ginger, Indian ginger,

African ginger, and Chinese ginger, and these vary in

taste and aroma.

000 8 Since the rhizome is perishable, it is susceptible to

attack by the soilborne fungi, insects, and white ants.

Rhizome rot or soft rot is the most serious disease

found all over the ginger-growing areas of the world.

Healthy and disease-free rhizomes are thus selected

for storage. The use of specific fungicides for the

treatment of rhizomes before storage is recommended

on a regional basis. The treated rhizomes are air-dried

under shade to remove excess moisture. The optimum

conditions for the storage of fresh ginger have been

investigated in detail in Hawaii. Harvested rhizomes

should be washed immediately and then air-dried in

the shade for 1–2 days. The rhizomes can be stored

safely for up to 6 months by maintaining the tempera-

ture at 12



C and the relative humidity at 65%.

000 9 In India, the ginger is loosely stored in pits, which

may be up to 1m deep. These pits are cool and

provide protection against sunlight. A layer of sand

or sawdust is spread at the bottom of the pit before

storing the rhizomes. The pit is left uncovered or

covered with a wooden plank, which in turn is

plastered with mud, with a hole in the center for

aeration.

0010As mentioned earlier, there are three primary

products of ginger rhizomes: fresh or green ginger,

preserved ginger in syrup or brine, and dried ginger.

Green ginger is consumed mostly in the areas of

production and nearby places. Preserved and dried

products are the major forms in which ginger is

traded internationally. Dried ginger is used as a

spice and also for the preparation of its extracts.

0011Commercial preparation of preserved ginger is

mostly practiced in China, Hong Kong, Australia,

and India. Young juicy rhizomes are dried, cleaned,

and boiled in water until they become tender. They

fig0001Plate 1 (see color plate 130) Spices and flavouring crops:

Rhizome of green ginger (Zingiber officinale).

fig0002Plate 2 Spices and flavouring crops: Rhizome of dried ginger

(Zingiber officinale).

SPICES AND FLAVORING (FLAVOURING) CROPS/Tubers and Roots 5487

are then peeled, scraped, and boiled several times in a

sugar solution. Sometimes, preserved ginger is also

prepared in the dry state by dusting the drying

rhizomes with crystalline sugar.

0012 The preparation of dried ginger involves processing

the cleaned rhizomes by peeling, splitting them into

pieces, immersing them into boiling water for about

10 min, and, finally, drying. The appearance of pro-

cessed ginger (black or white), the contents of volatile

oil and fiber, the pungency level, and an assessment of

the aroma and flavour are important in the quality

evaluation of dried ginger.

0013 The characteristic pleasant and aromatic odor of

ginger is due to essential oil, which can be separated

from the dried rhizome by steam distillation. The

essential oil, known in the trade as ‘oil of ginger,’ is

greenish to yellow in color, mobile (viscous on aging),

with the characteristic warm and aromatic odor, but

not the pungent flavor of the spice. The pungent

principles of ginger are nonvolatile oleoresin, com-

monly known in the trade as ‘gingerin.’ This can be

extracted from dried ginger by percolation with a

suitable solvent. It is a viscous and dark brown oil

and retains the full pungency of the spice. Besides the

pungent principles, the oleoresin also contains

gingerol, shogaol, and zingerone.

0014 In medicine, ginger is used as a carminative and

digestive stimulant. It also dilates the blood vessels

in the skin, causing a feeling of warmth. Its prepar-

ations are also useful in the treatment of coughs

and colds. Ginger is extensively used in culinary

preparations such as soups, puddings, pickles,

gingerbread, and cookies, and is an ingredient of all

curries, except those used with fish. Ginger is also

popular for flavoring beverages such as ginger ale

and ginger beer.

Turmeric

0015 Turmeric, another important spice, is also obtained

from the underground plant part, i.e., the stem. The

plant, a native of south-east Asia, is widely cultivated

in India, Sri Lanka, Indonesia, China, Taiwan, Peru,

Haiti, and Jamaica, of which India is by far the largest

exporter.

0016 Turmeric is obtained from the rhizomes of Cur-

cuma domestica Val. (syn. C. longa L.), also a

member of the family Zingiberaceae. The plant is a

robust perennial herb with a short stem and tufted

leaves. The rhizomes, brownish yellow in color, con-

sist of a central bulbous portion bearing a number of

finger-like lateral offshoots. Although the character-

istic yellow matter is distributed throughout the

plant, it is highly concentrated in the rhizome. There

are several varieties of turmeric distinguished by

the names of the localities in which they are grown.

Turmeric cultivated in the hills is said to be of a better

quality than that raised in the plains. Even the same

variety which is grown in plains and on the hills

shows distinct differences in quality and yield. See

Plate 3.

0017Cultivation of turmeric requires a hot and moist

climate, a liberal water supply, and a well drained

soil. It can be grown successfully in rice fields on

raised beds beyond the reach of stagnant water. It is

usually rotated with ragi (a cereal grass cultivated in

Africa and Asia), paddy, and sugarcane. It is rarely

cultivated as a pure crop and is usually grown mixed

with castor bean, maize, ragi, onions, brinjal, and

tomato. The plants thrive well in partially shaded

areas, but shade adversely affects the yield.

0018Turmeric is a good host for many pathogenic

microorganisms and insectpests. Rhizome rot and

leaf spot caused mainly by Taphrina maculans Butler

are the important diseases of turmeric. The use of

Bordeaux mixture or any other nonmetallic fungicide

has been suggested as a remedy.

0019The crop is ready for harvesting in about 9–10

months, when the lower leaves turn yellow. The rhi-

zomes are carefully dug up with hand-picks. The leafy

tops are then cut off, and the roots are removed. The

adhering soil particles are removed by brisk shaking

or by rubbing, and the rhizomes are then thoroughly

washed with water, placed in small heaps, covered

with turmeric leaves, and left to dehydrate. The

fingers and bulbs (or mother rhizomes) are then

separated and cured separately.

0020The curing of turmeric involves boiling or steaming

the fresh rhizomes in water, followed by drying and

polishing. The rhizomes are boiled for 45–60 min

fig0003Plate 3 (see color plate 131) Spices and flavouring crops:

Rhizome of turmeric (Curcuma domestica).

5488 SPICES AND FLAVORING (FLAVOURING) CROPS/Tubers and Roots

over a slow fire until they become soft. The rhizomes

are then cooled and spread out to dry in the sun.

Boiling of the rhizomes in very dilute solutions

(0.05–0.1%) of mild alkali modifies the color of the

core of the rhizome to the desired yellow–orange. The

duration of boiling markedly affects the color and

aroma of the final product. After boiling, the rhi-

zomes are dried in sunlight for 10–15 days. Sun-

drying gives rise to a surface-bleaching effect. After

drying, the rhizomes become quite hard and brittle,

and break with a metallic sound. Drying is followed

by polishing, which includes cleaning off the outer

skin, rootlets and adhering particles of soil, and

making the rhizomes smooth. Polishing is performed

either manually or in power-operated drums. The

dried turmeric is coated with a slurry of turmeric

powder in the course of polishing to impart a better

color to the rhizomes.

0021 The cured rhizomes are stored in pits dug at a

raised site. The bottom and sides of these pits are

lined with Saccharum spontaneum (commonly

known as Rellu grass) and palmyrah mats. The pits,

after being filled with cured turmeric, are covered

with mats and grass and, finally, with earth. The

produce may be stored for a year. The turmeric is

also stored in ‘godowns’ or warehouses in gunny

bags.

0022 The coloring matter of turmeric is yellowish

crystalline curcumin, which can be extracted from

the powder either by direct solvent extraction or by

extraction with alkali and subsequent precipitation

with acid.

0023 Turmeric is mainly used for domestic culinary prep-

arations and is an important constituent of curry

powder. Turmeric is also used as coloring agent in the

textile, food, and pharmaceutical industries. In the

Indian system of medicine, turmeric is used to some

extent as a stomachic (i.e., promoting the appetite or

assisting digestion), tonic, and blood purifier. The

juice of the fresh rhizome is used as an antiparasitic

for many skin diseases. Oil of turmeric, distilled from

the dried rhizome, shows antiseptic properties.

Minor crops

Spices obtained from Roots

0024 Angelica Angelica has been in use as a spice since ad

1500. It is obtained from the roots of Angelica arch-

angelica L., a member of the family Apiceae. It is

native to Syria but is known to occur in many parts

of Europe and western Asia. In India, it is grown in

the Kashmir valley.

0025 The plant is a stout perennial herb with large,

pinnately compound leaves and small, greenish

white flowers. The dry rootstocks yield 0.35–1% of

essential oil, the main constituent of which is

b-phellandrene. The roots contain several furocou-

marins such as angelicin, bergapten, xanthotoxin,

etc. in addition to umbelliprenin and several phenols.

The dried roots are frequently used for flavoring

cakes, candy, and beverages. Angelica root is the

main flavoring ingredient of gin. It is also used in

perfumery and medicine. In medicine, the roots have

been shown to possess stimulant, expectorant, and

diaphorectic (i.e., inducing perspiration) properties.

0026Horse-radish The horse-radish (Armoracia lapathi-

folia Gilib.) is a member of the family Brassicaceae

and has been in use as a condiment since ancient

times. The plant is a native of southeastern Europe

and is widely grown in Europe, America, and the hilly

regions of India.

0027The plant is a tall, hardy herb with glossy green,

toothed leaves. The roots are fleshy, yellowish white,

and cylindrical. Initially, the root is about 2.5 cm in

diameter, but it may reach a length of 1 m. The Eng-

lish refer to the plant as ‘red cole,’ perhaps due to the

hot sensation experienced when ingesting even small

pieces of root. The roots are dug up and are scraped

or grated before use. Both fresh and dried roots are

used as a condiment, which aids digestion and pre-

vents scurvy. It is similar to mustard in most of its

properties. The smell and flavor of horse-radish come

from the glycoside sinigrin, which decomposes in

the presence of water by enzyme action to form mus-

tard oil.

0028Asafoetida Asafoetida is the dried latex obtained

mainly from living rootstocks or tap roots of several

species of Ferula, namely F. foetida Regel., F. alliacea

Boiss., F. rubricaulis Boiss., F. asafoetida Linn., and

F. narthex Boiss, of the family Apiaceae. The

plants are perennial herbs which are mainly distrib-

uted from the Mediterranean region to Central

Asia. The main regions of asafoetida production are

eastern Iran and Western Afghanistan. Some species

are also found in the Punjab and Kashmir regions

of India.

0029The plants bear large, carrot-shaped roots, 10–

15 cm in diameter at the crown after 4–5 years of

growth. At the time of flowering, the upper part of

the root is laid bare, and the stem is cut off close to the

crown. The exposed surface is covered by a dome-

shaped structure made up of twigs and mud. The

exudate (milky juice) oozing out from the cut surfaces

is scraped off after a few days. The collection of the

resin and the slicing of the root are repeated until

exudation ceases.

0030Asafoetida occurs in three forms in commercial

trade: tears, mass, and paste. The tears make the

SPICES AND FLAVORING (FLAVOURING) CROPS/Tubers and Roots 5489

purest form of resin, it is bitter and acrid in taste and

emits a strong and peculiar odor.

0031 Asafoetida contains mainly resin (40–64%), gum

(25%), and volatile oil (10–17% on a dry-weight

basis). The resin portion consists mainly of asaresino-

tannol, free or combined with ferulic acid. Umbelli-

ferone seems to be present in combined state. Oil of

asafoetida is obtained by steam distillation of the gum

resin.

0032 Asafoetida is generally used for flavoring curries,

sauces, and pickles. Medicinally, it stimulates the in-

testinal and respiratory tracts and the nervous system.

It is useful in asthma, whooping cough, and chronic

bronchitis.

0033 Sarsaparilla Sarsaparilla is obtained from the dried

roots of several tropical species of Smilax, a member

of the family Liliaceae. Some of the important spice-

yielding species include S. aristolochiaefolia Mill.

(Mexico), S. officinalis H.B. & K. (Honduras), and

S. regelii Killip & Morton (Jamaica). The plant

thrives best in hot and humid climates and on light,

well-drained sandy loam rich in humus.

0034 The plants are climbing or trailing vines with

prickly stems. The rhizomes are short and thick,

with very long, thin roots. The plants are harvested

after attaining 2–3 years of age. They are carefully

dug up and cut off near the stock, which is then

covered up again with surface soil. The harvested

roots are then washed well, dried in the sun, and

tied up in bundles. The roots contain a bitter principle

which is used as a flavoring agent. It is chiefly used as

a beverage condiment for the preparation of soft

drinks. Sarsaparilla is mostly used in combination

with winter green and other aromatic plants.

0035 Medicinally, sarsaparilla has been used to treat

syphilis and other skin diseases.

Spices obtained from Rhizomes or Tubers

0036 Zedoary Zedoary (Curcuma zedoaria Rosc. syn.

C. zerumbet Roxb.) closely resembles turmeric

(C. longa) in appearance. It is a native of northeast

India and is widely cultivated in many parts of China,

Sri Lanka, and India.

0037 The plant bears green leaves with brownish purple

veins and grows up to a height of 50 cm. The rhizomes,

which are large and fleshy, are cut into small pieces and

dried. Dried slices have a bitter and strong, camphor-

aceous taste and are used for commercial purposes.

0038 Steam distillation of the rhizome yields a light

yellow oil. The odoriferous consitutent is said to be a

sesquiterpene alcohol belonging to the tricyclic group.

0039 Zedoary was an important spice in the past, but

these days, it is usually used only for flavoring li-

queurs and curries. The rhizomes have aromatic,

stimulant, and carminative properties. Besides its

use as spices, the rhizomes are also used for the prep-

aration of shoti starch (flour), a substitute for arrow-

root and barley. It is highly valued as a dietary item,

especially for infants and convalescents. A red

powder, ‘abir,’ is also prepared from powdered rhi-

zomes by treatment with a decoction of sappan wood.

0040Mango ginger Mango ginger (Curcuma amada

Roxb.) is a member of the family Zingiberaceae. The

plant is native to India and occurs in the wild state in

parts of Bengal, Konkan, and Madras. See Plate 4.

0041The plants are herbaceous, and the rhizomes have

the characteristic odor of green mangoes. At the time

of harvesting, entire plants are lifted up with a crow-

bar, and the rhizomes are collected, cleaned, and

dried in the shade. On distillation, the rhizome yields

essential oil, which consists mainly of pinene, oci-

mene, and linalool. The rhizome is mostly used in

pickles and is considered stomachic and carminative.

It is also applied over contusions and sprains.

0042Galangal Galangal is of three types: lesser galangal,

greater galangal, and light galangal. The reddish-

brown rhizomes are used as condiment and have an

aromatic spicy odor and a pungent taste.

0043The lesser galangal (Alpinia officinarum Hance.), a

member of the family Zingiberaceae, is a native of

southern China. The plant is a perennial herb with a

raceme of showy flowers and attractive foliage. The

rhizome is smaller and has a stronger odor and taste.

The lesser galangal is used as a spice in cooking, and

also in medicine and for flavoring liqueurs. It is also

used to impart a pungent flavor to vinegar.

0044The greater galangal (Alpinia galanga (L.) Willd.)

is also a perennial herb with showy flowers and

fig0004Plate 4 (see color plate 132) Spices and flavouring crops:

Rhizome of mango ginger (Curcuma amada).

5490 SPICES AND FLAVORING (FLAVOURING) CROPS/Tubers and Roots

beautiful foliage. It is commonly found in Indonesia

and Malaysia, and is also cultivated in Bengal and

southern parts of India. The green rhizomes contain

essential oil consisting mainly of methyl cinnamate

and cineol. It gives a pungent taste like a mixture of

pepper and ginger. Medicinally, it is useful in respira-

tory troubles, especially in children. The rhizomes are

also carminative and stomachic.

0045 The light galangal (Alpinia speciosa (Wendl.) K.

Schum) is a native of the Eastern Archipelago, off

the Coromandel Coast of south-east India. Its rhi-

zome is much larger and is generally used as substi-

tute for greater galangal, and even as a substitute for

ginger in many preparations.

See also: Spices and Flavoring (Flavouring) Crops: Use

of Spices in the Food Industry; Properties and Analysis

Further Reading

Akamine EK (1962) Storage of Fresh Ginger Rhizomes.

Bulletin No. 130. University of Hawaii: Hawaii Agricul-

ture Experimental Station, Hawaii.

Anon. (1976) The Wealth of India. Raw Materials. New

Delhi: Council of Scientific and Industrial Research.

Hirasa K and Takemasa M (eds) (1998) Spice Science and

Technology. New York: Marcel Dekker.

Kochhar SL (1981) Economic Botany in the Tropics.

Madras: Macmillan.

Parry JW (1969) Spices: The Story of Spices, vol. I. New

York: Chemical Publishing Company.

Pruthi JS (1976) Spices and Condiments. New Delhi:

National Book Trust.

Purseglove JV, Brown EG, Green CL and Robbins SRJ

(1981) Spices, vols. I and II. London: Longman.

Rosengarten F Jr. (1969) The Book of Spices. Philadelphia,

PA: Livingston.

Simpson BB and Connez-Ogorzaly M (1986) Economic

Botany: Plants in our World. New York: McGraw Hill.

Watt G (1972) Dictionary of the Economic Products of

India, vol. VI. New Delhi: Cosmo.

Properties and Analysis

C Jian Qin, Perfumery Research and Development

Center of Yunnan, Kunming, Yunnan, China

This article is reproduced from Encyclopaedia of Food Science,

Background

0001 In the vegetable kingdom, there are many plants that

are odorous. A range of spices used in foods is shown

in Table 1. This article reviews the properties of these

odor-bearing molecules as well as the technology of

extraction. In addition to their odorant properties,

many herbs and spices have an important effect on

taste, as well as heating/cooling in the mouth. (See

Flavor (Flavour) Compounds: Structures and Charac-

teristics; Sensory Evaluation: Aroma; Taste.)

Range of Compounds Present

0002The odorants are chemically mainly of three types,

and they can be present in any organ of the plant,

such as the seed, fruit, flower, leaf, root, rhizome, and/

or bark, even in moss. Some of the more important

compounds found are shown in Table 2, with their

structures in Table 3.(See Essential Oils: Properties

and Uses.)

Terpenes

0003Most odorous compounds present in plants are

monoterpenes, sesquiterpenes, and their derivatives.

This kind of compound is derived from secondary

metabolites of biosynthesis via coenzyme A. Their

chemical structure is essentially formed by a number

of units of 2-methylbutadiene (trivially called iso-

prene), so that their general formula is (C

)

.Ifn

equals 2, the compound is called monoterpene; if

n equals 3, it is called a sesquiterpene, and so on.

Derivatives of Phenylpropane

0004Although this type of compound is less widely distrib-

uted than the terpenes, it is very important from the

fragrance point of view, for example, trans-anethole

in anise and star aniseed oil and cinnamic aldehyde in

cinnamon bark oil. These compounds are also prod-

ucts of secondary metabolites; in comparison with

terpenes, biosynthesis is via shikimic acid, which is

an intermediate in the synthesis of lignin.

Aliphatic, Heterocyclic, and Phenolic Compounds

0005The third type of flavoring compounds consist of

derivatives of aliphatic heterocyclic and phenolic

compounds. These compounds can be associated

with the two preceding types of odorants as minor

compounds in essential oils. However, they are fre-

quently encountered; for example, 6-methyl-5-hep-

ten-2-one is found in most citrus essential oils. Some

plants contain only aliphatic and heterocyclic com-

pounds without either terpenes or derivatives of phe-

nylpropane; for example, rose, jasmine, and violet.

They are found in the plant in the flowers, leaves,

and/or fruits. (See Phenolic Compounds.)

0006These compounds can belong to a wide variety of

chemical groups:

SPICES AND FLAVORING (FLAVOURING) CROPS/Properties and Analysis 5491

.0007 Aldehydes, alcohols, esters, ketones, and lactones,

which are formed by the metabolism of lipids and

glycosides.

0008 Phenols, which result from the metabolism of pro-

teins and glycosides.

0009 Sulfides and nitrogenous compounds (mercaptans,

thiophenes, thiazoles, pyrazines and pyridines),

which arise from the metabolism of proteins.

0010 Carboxylic acids, which come from the metabol-

ism of sugars and glycerides.

They have a delicate fragrance and are generally

responsible for floral notes and fruit flavor; their

odor, therefore, is very different from that of terpenes.

It must be noted that the heterocyclic compounds can

be formed not only by biosynthetic processes but

also by fermentation by microorganisms or thermal

reactions, including the Maillard reaction. (See

Browning: Nonenzymatic.)

Extraction and Isolation

Process Using Water Vapor

0011Essential oils can be produced by use of water vapor.

The term ‘oil’ refers to their lipophilic nature, which

causes them to separate from aqueous distillate. The

adjective ‘essential’ refers to its origin in a living

plant. (See Essential Oils: Isolation and Production.)

tbl0001 Table 1 Spices used in food preparation/processing

Type and number Common name Latin name Class/order family (bot) Cultivation region

Fruits

1 Pepper, black Piper nigrum Piperaceae Tropical and subtropical regions

2 Vanilla Vanilla planifolia Orchidaceae Madagascar, Comore Island,

Mexico, Uganda

3 Allspice Pimenta dioica Myrtaceae Caribbean Islands, Central America

4 Paprika (red pepper) Capsicum annuum Solanaceae Mediterranean and Balkan region

5 Bay tree

Laurus nobilis Lauraceae Mediterranean region

6 Juniper berries Juniperus communis Cupressacceae Temperate climate region

7 Chilli Capsicum frutescens Solanaceae Tropical region

8 Aniseed Pimpinella anisum Apiaceae

Temperate climate region

9 Caraway Carum carvi Apiaceae

;

10 Coriander Coriandrum sativum Apiaceae

11 Dill

Anethum graveolens Apiaceae

Seeds

12 Mustard Sinapis alba

Brassicaceae

Temperate climate region

Brassica nigra

Brassicaceae

13 Nutmeg Myristica fragrans Myristicaceae Indonesia, Sri Lanka, India

14 Cardamom Elettaria cardamomum Zingiberaceae India, Sri Lanka

Flowers

15 Clove Syzygium aromaticum Myrtaceae Indonesia, Sri Lanka, Madagascar

Rhizomes

16 Ginger Zingiber officinale Zingiberaceae South China, India, Japan,

Caribbean Islands, Africa

17 Turmeric Curcuma longa Zingiberaceae India, China, Indonesia

Barks

18 Cinnamon Cinnamomum zeylanicum,

C. aromaticum,

C. burmanii

Lauraceae China, Sri Lanka, Indonesia,

Caribbean Islands

Roots

19 Horse-radish Armoracia rusticana Brassicaceae Temperate climate region

Leaves

20 Parsley Carum petroselinum Apiaceae Temperate climate region

21 Marjoram Origanum majorana Lamiaceae Temperate climate region

22 Oregano Origanum heracleoticum,

O. onites

Lamiaceae Temperate climate region

23 Rosemary Rosmarinus officinalis Lamiaceae Mediterranean region

24 Sage Salvia officinalis Lamiaceae Mediterranean region

25 Thyme Thymus vulgaris Lamiaceae Temperate climate region

Fruits and leaves.

White mustard.

Black mustard.

From Belitz H-D and Grosch W (1987) Food Chemistry. Berlin: Springer.

5492 SPICES AND FLAVORING (FLAVOURING) CROPS/Properties and Analysis

0012 Steam distillation This process, which is an indirect

distillation, involves putting raw materials above the

vapour current without previous maceration. The

saturated vapors bearing volatile organic compounds

are condensed on a cold surface, and the essential oil

is recovered by decantation. This process allows

treatment of raw materials that are heat-sensitive.

0013 Hydrodistillation In this case, the raw materials are

immersed in boiling water. The volatile compounds

are carried away with the water vapor and collected

after condensation and decantation, as in steam

distillation.

001 4 Hydrodistillation is generally carried out at atmos-

pheric pressure. Nevertheless, we can improve the

relationship between the weight of material carried

and that of evaporated water, which represents an

improvement in energetic efficiency. Such material

as vetiver rhizome can be treated with this technique,

because it bears many compounds of high molecular

mass, which cannot be evaporated easily at atmos-

pheric pressure.

0015 Microwave hydrodistillation Recently, a micro-

wave technique has been developed for treating aro-

matic plants. The advantage of this technique is that it

allows the recovery of odorant compounds present in

smaller quantities in plants. In addition, the time of

extraction is very short in comparison with trad-

itional steam distillation. However, it seems as if this

method will not be commercially available because of

difficulties in the choice of microwave frequency.

0016Hydrodiffusion In contrast to the usual direct steam

distillation, this process allows steam to enter from the

top of the vessel. The resulting solution is condensed

and separated by decantation, as mentioned above.

The main advantages of this technique are in saving

energy owing to reduced steam consumption and in

the elimination of hydrolysis, because the raw mater-

ial is never in contact with water, only with steam.

0017Vacuum distillation In many cases, the essential oils

produced either by solvent extraction (see below) or

by steam distillation do not exactly fit the perfumers’

and the flavorists’ needs. It is sometimes necessary to

eliminate certain constituents, such as terpenes or

heavy colorings, or to increase the percentage of

major aroma compounds. Figure 1 shows a distilla-

tion column on which different compounds can be

separated according to their boiling points. The tem-

perature gradually increases during the distillation,

the most volatile compounds being isolated first.

The better the vacuum, the lower the distillation tem-

perature, which in turn protects the odorants from

degradation.

tbl00 02 Table 2 Majorcomponentsoftheessentialoilsofspices

Spice

Components

Pepper(1)22% a-Pinene[29],21%sabinene[25],17% b-caryophyllene[49], D

-carene[32],limonene[9], b-pinene[30]

Allspice(3)70%Eugenol[50], b-caryophyllene[49],methyleugenol,1,8-cineole[23], a-phellandrene[11]

Bayleaf(5)50–70%1,8-Cineole[23], a-pinene[29], b-pinene[30], a-phellandrene[11],linalool[4]

Juniperberries(6)36% a-Pinene[29],13%myrcene[1], b-pinene[30], D

-carene[32]

Aniseed (8)80–90%Anethole[54]

Caraway(9)55%Carvone[21],44%limonene[9]

Coriander(10)Linaool[4],linalylacetate,citral

Dillfruit(11)35%Carvone[21],12%dihydrocarvone,10%limonene[9],carveol[16], a-terpinene[10]

Nutmeg(13)27% a-Pinene[29],21% b-pinene[30],15%sabinene[25],9%limonene[9],safrole[55],myristicin[56]

Cardamom(14)20–40%1,8-Cineole[23],28–34% a-terpinylacetate,2–14%limonene[9],3–5%sabinene[25]

Clove(15)80–90%Eugenol[50],9%caryophyllene,eugenolacetate

Ginger(16)30%()-Zingiberene[42],10–15% b-bisabolene[41],15–20%()-sesquiphellandrene[43],(þ)-arcurcumene

[60],citronellylacetate

Turmeric(17)30%Turmerone[62],25%arturmerone[63],25%zingiberene[42]

Cinnamon(18)50–80%Cinnamaldehyde[57],10%eugenol[50],0–11%safrole[55],10–15%linalool[4],camphor[33]

Parsley(20)1,3,8,p-Menthatriene[58],1-methyl-4-isopropenylbenzene[59], b-phellandrene[12],myrcene[1]

Marjoram(21)49–65%1,8-Cineole[23],25%estragole[53],15% a-terpineol[17],11%eugenol[50],linalool[4],

geranyl acetate, ocimene [2]

Oregano (22) Carvacrol [51], thymol [52], p-cymene [61], carvacrol methyl ether

Rosemary (23) 1,8-Cineole [23], camphor [33], b-pinene [30], camphene [31]

Sage (24) 1,8-Cineole [23], camphor [33], thujone [26]

Thyme (25) Thymol [52], p-cymene [61], carvacrol [51], linalool [4]

Thenumbersinparenthesesrefertothenumbersin Table 1.

Thebold numbersinsquarebracketsrefertothestructuresshownin Table 3.

A mixture of neral and geranial.

From Belitz H-D and Grosch W (1987) Food Chemistry. Berlin: Springer.

SPICES AND FLAVORING (FLAVOURING) CROPS/Properties and Analysis 5493

tbl0003 Table 3 Terpenes and phenolic and other compounds in food

Monoterpenes

Acyclic (including cyclic derivatives)

[1] Myrcene

[2] trans-Ocimene [3] cis-Ocimene

[4] Linalool

[4a]2,6,6-Trimethyl-2-vinyl

5-hydroxytetrahydropyran

[4b] 2-Methyl-2-vinyl-

5-hydroxyisopropyltetrahydrofuran

[5] Geraniol

b,c

[6] Nerol

[6a] Neroloxide

[7] Citronellol

[7a] Rosenoxide

[8] Hotrienol

Monocyclic

[9] Limonene

[10] a-Terpinene [11] a-Phellandrene

[12] b-Phellandrene [13] g-Terpinene

[14] Menthol

Continued

5494 SPICES AND FLAVORING (FLAVOURING) CROPS/Properties and Analysis

[15] Pulegol

[16] Carveol

[17] a-Terpineol

[18] Perilla alcohol

[19] Menthone

[20] Pulegone

[21] Carvone

CHO

[22] 1,3-p-Menthadien-7-al

[23] 1,8-Cineole

[24] 1,4-Cineole

Bicyclic

[25] Sabinene

[26] a-Thujone

[27] (þ)-cis-Sabinene hydrate

[28] (þ)-trans-Sabinene hydrate

[29] a-Pinene [30] b-Pinene

Continued

Table 3 Continued

SPICES AND FLAVORING (FLAVOURING) CROPS/Properties and Analysis 5495

[31] Camphene

[32] D

-Carene

[33] Camphor

[34] Fenchone

Sesquiterpenes

Acyclic

[35] (3E,6E)-a-Farnesene

[36] (3Z,6E)-a-Farnesene

[37] b-Farnesene

[38] Farnesol

[39] (All-trans)-a-Sinensal

[40] (trans,trans,cis)a-Sinensal

Monocyclic

[41] b-Bisabolene

[42] ()-Zingiberene

[43] ()-Sesquiphellandrene

[44] Humulene

Bicyclic

[45] b-Cadinene

[46] Valencene

[47] (þ)-Nootkatone

Table 3 Continued

Continued

5496 SPICES AND FLAVORING (FLAVOURING) CROPS/Properties and Analysis