Caballero B. (ed.) Encyclopaedia of Food Science, Food Technology and Nutrition. Ten-Volume Set

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sun-drying. (See Drying: Drying Using Natural Radi-

ation; Sensory Evaluation: Aroma; Taste.)

Anise

0005 Anise is the dried fruit of Pimpinella anisum L.

(Apiaceae). The schizocarps are 2–5 mm, ovoid–

conical, grayish brown, and pubescent, with a pedicel

attached; they are crowned with a short, bifur-

cate stylopod. The mericarps, attached to the carpo-

phore, are broadly ovoid; they are flat or concave

on the commissural side, convex and pubescent on

the dorsal side (Figure 1d and e).

0006 The exocarp has an outer striated cuticle with

stomata and rectangular epidermal cells bearing

surface hairs up to 150 mm in length. The mesocarp

consists of five fibrovascular bundles underlying

ridges, two to four vittae on the commissural side

and 20–40 vittae on the dorsal side. The endosperm

of the seed is composed of thick-walled parenchymat-

ous cells containing oil and aleurone grains and one

or two small ‘rosette’ calcium oxalate crystals (Figure

1f and g).

0007 Anise has a characteristic and agreeable aromatic

odor and a pleasant taste. Fruits are harvested when

their color changes from green to gray; shattering is

minimized by avoiding overripening and harvesting

during the morning with scythes or reaping machines.

The crop is piled into small stacks and allowed to

wither for 2–3 days; it is then threshed and dried

in partial shade. After winnowing, sieving, and

cleaning, the crop is dried naturally to 18% moisture

followed by artificial drying at 80–90



C; it is then

packed and stored in a cool, dry room. For keeping

spices belonging to family Apiaceae, the maximum

tolerance limit of moisture is 10%. Reducing the

moisture below 8% can generally have a bad effect

on the quality due to loss of volatile oils. Crushed or

ground spice is stored in airtight containers. (See

Drying: Theory of Air-drying.)

Black Pepper

0008Black pepper consists of the dried, unripe fruit of

Piper nigrum L. (Piperaceae). It is the oldest and most

important spice and commonly known as the ‘King of

spices.’ There are about a hundred cultivars of black

pepper under cultivation. There is considerable vari-

ability among the accessions with regard to various

morphological as well as floral characters like leaf

shape, size, spike length, density, composition of male,

female and bisexual flowers in the spike, fruit set,

shape, weight and volume of the fruit, and time taken

for maturity. The fruit, though known as a berry, is a

sessile globose drupe with a pulpy pericarp. The berry

is globular, 6 mm or less in diameter, brownish black,

with a coarsely reticulate surface, and single-seeded.

The seed is almost white hollow, and adheres to the

pericarp (Figure 1h and i).

0009The exocarp is cutinized and darkly pigmented,

with rectangular cells beneath containing calcium

oxalate crystals. The hypodermis consists of stone

cells interspersed with parenchyma. The mesocarp is

comparatively broad: the outer seven to eight layers

Botanical name Common name Family Part used Characters

Tr a c h y s p e r m u m a m m i (L.)

Sprague

Bishops weed

(Ajowan)

Apiaceae Fruit Cremocarp ovoid (2–3 mm long), muricate,

grayish brown; mericarps compressed

with distinct ridges and tuberculate

surface harvested when fruits turn brown;

plants are pulled out and dried completely

on threshing floor; fruits are separated by

rubbing.

Ta m a rin d u s i n di c a L. Tamarind Fabaceae Fruit Fruits 5–20 cm by 2 cm in size; epicarp

surface rough, brownish hard and brittle;

mesocarp pulpy light brown changing with

age to dark brown or black; containing

some branched fibers and numerous

seeds

Vanilla pompona Schneider Pompon or West

Indian vanilla

Orchidaceae Fruit Pods are 10–17.5 cm long and 2.5–3.3 cm in

diameter

Vanilla tahitensis J.W. Moore Tahitian vanilla Orchidaceae Fruit Pods 12–14 cm long and about 9–10 mm wide

with tapering ends; pods are harvested

when tips of the pods turn brown

Xylopia aethiopia (Dunal)

A. Richard

Xylopia, Netawu Annonanaceae Fruit Mature carpels cylindrical, incurved, about

5 cm long, embedded in the center of the

receptacle; seeds glabrous, ellipsoid

(about 0.5 mm by 0.25 mm), brown

Table 1 Continued

SPICES AND FLAVORING (FLAVOURING) CROPS/Fruits and Seeds 5467

Exo

(a)

Mes

End

(h)

(i)

Exo

Mes

(j)

(o)

(p)

(k)

Mes

(r)

(g)

(q)

(m)

(s)

Exo

Ocl

Mes

End

(t)

(w)

(x)

(y)

(z)

(v)

(u)

(n)

(l)

Cro

Bel

Mes

End

Bel

End

Ocl

(f)

Scl

(b)

(d)

(e)

(c)

Exo

Mes

Stc

fig0001 Figure 1 Spices from fruits. Allspice: (a) fruit; (b) longitudinal section of fruit; (c) cross-section of pericarp. Anise: (d) schizocarp; (e)

mericarp; (f) cross-section of mericarp; (g) cross-section through ridge of pericarp. Black pepper: (h) fruit; (i) cross-section of fruit; (j)

pericarp, seed coat and portion of perisperm. (k) White pepper. Capsicum: (l) Capsicum annum fruit; (m) C. frutescens fruit; (n) cross-

section of pericarp of C. frutescens. Caraway: (o, p) mericarp; (q) cross-section of mericarp; (r) cross-section through ridge of pericarp.

Cardamom: (s) fruit; (t) seeds; (u) cross-section of pericarp; (v) cross-section of seed. Celery: (w) schizocarp; (x) mericarp; (y) cross-

section of mericarp; (z) cross-section through ridge of pericarp. Reproduced from Spices and Flavoring (Flavouring) Crops: Fruits and

Seeds, Encyclopaedia of Food Science, Food Technology and Nutrition, Macrae R, Robinson RK and Sadler MJ (eds), 1993, Academic

Press. Abbreviations: Ad, amylodextrin granules; Ag, aleurone grains; Ar, aril; Bc, beaded cells; Bel, beaker cells; C, cuticle;

Cc, compressed cells; Ch, chloroplast, Col, colenchyma; Cot, cotyledon; Cp, carpophore; Cr, crystal; Crc, crystal cells; Cro, cross

cells; Dl, dehiscence line; Em, embryo; End, endocarp; Ep, epidermis; Es, endosperm; Exo, exocarp; Fl, fiber layer; Fo, fixed oil;

Gc, giant cell; H, hair; Hc, hourglass cells; Hp, horny protein; Hy, hypodermis; Li, light line; Mc, mucilage cells; Mes, mesocarp; Mp,

mesophyl; O, oil; Oc, oil cavity; Ocl, oil cells; Or, oleoresin; P, pedicel; Pa, parenchyma; Pal, palisade; Pe, perisperm; Pl, placenta;

R, raphe; Rc, reticulated cells; Re, resin; Rub, rudimentary vascular bundle; Sc, seed coat; Scl, sclerenchyma; Sd, seed; Se, secretory

cells; St, starch; Stc, stone cells; V, vittae; Vb, vascular bundle.

5468 SPICES AND FLAVORING (FLAVOURING) CROPS/Fruits and Seeds

are parenchymatous with scattered oleoresin cells, and

beneath, there is a zone of fibrovascular bundles, a

region of compressed cells, a layer of large oil cells,

and two layers of small parenchyma cells. The endo-

carp consists of a layer of ‘beaker cells,’ the radial

and inner walls of which are strongly lignified. The

seed coat is differentiated into the distinct layers, and

whereas the outer perisperm cells contain aleurone

grains, the inner cells contain starch grains (Figure 1k).

0010 The fruits are aromatic and pungent. The quality of

black pepper depends upon piperine and essential oil

present in the oleoresin. Piperine contributes to the

pungency, and essential oil is responsible for the char-

acteristic flavor. The harvested green berried spikes

are heaped for a day and spread on a mat or floor. The

berries are separated from spikes by rubbing. After

separation, the berries are cleaned and put out for

drying. The fresh harvested berries will have a mois-

ture content of 80%, and this has to be dried to 8%

moisture content for safe storage. A blanching treat-

ment by dipping the berries for 1 min in boiling water

gives a glossy appearance to the dried berries and

reduces the microbial load on the product. Due to

enzymic oxidation of color compounds present in

the skin, the colour of pepper turns black during

drying, which effectively masks the green color that

is left in the berries after drying. The berries are dried

under sun for 4–7 days until the outer skin of the

berries becomes black in color with a wrinkled ap-

pearance. Small and light berries are removed from

the dried produce. Berries can be dried in a solar

cabinet dryer in 4 days with a spreading density of

18 kg m

2

and resulting in a black dried produce. By

contrast, sun-dried berries take 5 days to dry with a

spreading density of 5 kg m

2

and resulting in a dull

black color. Dark black berries obtained from solar

cabinet drying are preferred in trade over the dull

black berries obtained from open sun drying. Sixty

kilograms of fresh pepper can be dried in the indirect

heating type of dryers in about 30 h. After drying, the

pepper has to be garbled. Ungarbled pepper contains

fractions, dust, stalk, pinheads, and immature,

overmature, and large berries. The grading is done

by a combination of size sieving and weight classifi-

cation by air blast. The major grade is the average-

sized black pepper known as ‘Malabar Garbled,’

which constitutes 95% of India’s export. The recov-

ery of black pepper from fresh berries is 35–36%. For

black pepper powdering, a normal pin type of

hammer mill is used so that there is no temperature

rise during grinding. The ground pepper is only used

as a raw material for oleoresin and in the oil industry.

White pepper (Figure 1j) is usually prepared from

overripe berries. In this state, the skin comes off

easily, and the resultant product is dried. White

pepper fetches double the price of black pepper. The

piperine content also is found to be apparently higher

in white pepper due to its concentration in the endo-

sperm of the berries. In India, the berries are dipped in

water and the skin removed by rubbing with hand.

The skinless berries are dried in open sun for 7 days to

obtain white pepper. Skin is also removed in a pulping

machine after steam cooking. At the National

Research Centre for spices in Calicut, a process of

steaming and boiling the despiked pepper for 13 min

and rolling it in a container in running water to

remove outer skin has been developed.

0011After sun-drying, the berries are cleaned and

polished with a piece of cloth. The recovery of white

pepper is about 28% of the fresh ripe berries. In

European Countries, the green or fresh flavor

of pepper is desired in certain food preparations.

Green pepper is made in canned and bottled forms.

In the canned form, it is prepared by heat-sterilizing

green berries and packing them in 2% brine solution

for protection. However, the rupturing of berries and

making the covering liquid turbid are problems asso-

ciated with this method. These problems have been

overcome with proper canning methods and the

introduction of a trace of pepper oil into the can

before sealing. In bottled green pepper, heat process-

ing is avoided, but a higher salt strength of 15–20%

of the covering liquid is essential for good preserva-

tion. At CFRI, undermature berries are dried by

arresting the enzyme action responsible for oxidative

blackening and drying by mechanical means at low

temperatures. The product has an excellent green

flavor.

Capsicum

0012Capsicum is composed of dried fruits of the genus

Capsicum L. (Solanaceae). Cayenne pepper and red

pepper are two of the various synonyms of C. frutes-

cens L., whereas paprika is C. annuum L. The fruits

of C. frutescens are 6–150 mm long, laterally com-

pressed, musky brownish to deep red, smooth or

wrinkled, and bi- to tetralocular with central placen-

tae united at the base-apical placentae with longitu-

dinal ridges; the seeds are numerous, discoid, flat,

hard, smooth, yellow, and about 2–5 mm long

(Figure 1l and m).

0013The exocarp consists of five to seven rows of

subrectangular cells, 25–60 mmby15–20 mm; the

outer epidermis is cuticularized and the mesocarp is

parenchymatous, 30–85 mmby15–20 mm. Many

cells contain oil droplets and chromatophores, or

sandy crystals. The innermost layer consists of larger

cells, 0.8–1.7 mm by 0.2–0.4 mm. The endocarp is

single–layered, consisting of parenchymatous and

SPICES AND FLAVORING (FLAVOURING) CROPS/Fruits and Seeds 5469

sclerenchymatous cells, the latter directly beneath a

layer of giant cells possessing thick, lignified, porous

walls. The dissepiment consists of a zone of tangen-

tially elongated, collapsed cells (some containing

microcrystals) and epidermal cells on either side,

radially elongated, containing capsaicin (Figure 1n).

0014 The odor of the spice is characteristic, sternutatory

but agreeable, mildly to intensely pungent. The stem

of the entire plant is cut, hung, and exposed to the sun

to remove 80% moisture; it is then dried further in a

dryer to a critical moisture level; pricking the skin

longitudinally reduces the drying time. Completely

dried fruits are removed by a dressing machine and

packed in polythene bags.

Caraway

0015 Caraway is the dried fruit of Carum carvi L. (Apia-

ceae). The mericarps are separated, crescent-shaped,

3–7mm by 1–2.3 mm, and brown, with five lighter-

colored, filiform primary ribs, between which, on

the dorsal surface, there is a secondary rib (Figure

1o and p).

0016 In transverse section, the epicarp consists of slightly

tangentially elongated epidermal cells, and its outer

surface is cuticularized; the mesocarp consists of a

zone of several rows of collapsed, tangentially elong-

ated parenchymatous cells, with fibrovascular bundles

located in the rib portion; large vittae, two and four in

number, are present on the commissural and dorsal

side, respectively; the endocarp contains inner epider-

mal ‘cross cells’ that are closely adherent to the seed

coat (Figure 1q and r).

0017 The odor and taste of caraway are characteristic-

ally aromatic. The endosperm structure of the seeds,

and handling, drying, and storage of the spice are the

same as for anise.

Cardamom

0018 Cardamom is the dried fruit of Elettaria cardamo-

mum Maton (Zingiberaceae). It is popularly known

as the ‘Queen of spices.’ There are many varieties,

which are classified on the basis of their capsule size

and color. Some of the important varieties are

Alleppy, Mysore, Malabar, and Mangalore carda-

moms. The capsules are trilocular, containing seeds

on an axile placenta; they are 1–2 cm long, oblong-

ovoid, three-sided, greenish to pale buff or yellowish

in color; each locule contains five to eight seeds, 3 mm

by 2–3 mm, dark reddish brown, adhering together

with a membranous aril to form a single mass (Figure

1s and t). The pericarp in transverse section shows an

outer exocarp with cells up to 30 mm long. Parenchy-

matous cells of the mesocarp are up to 180 mm long,

containing one or more calcium oxalate crystals. The

inner mesocarp contains fibrovascular bundles and

resin cells. Endocarp cells are compressed and inva-

ginate into locular partitions (Figure 1u). Seeds, in

transverse section, show a three-cell-layered aril con-

taining a pale-colored substance and calcium oxalate

crystals. It has an outer epidermis followed by a layer

of pigmented, large, clear cells containing volatile oil,

a one- to two-layered parenchyma, and a layer of

sclerenchymatous, thick-walled, dark brown ‘beaker

cells,’ each with a nodule of silica; the perisperm con-

sists of starch-containing polygonal cells, the endo-

sperm cells containing proteinaceous substance

having a waxy or horny nature, and the embryo cells

containing aleurone grains and fixed oil (Figure 1u

and v).

0019The seeds are much more aromatic than the peri-

carp and possess a characteristically warm and

slightly pungent taste. Fruits on the same raceme

ripen at different times, and ripe fruits are collected

before splitting. A green curing method is common in

commerce. Fully mature green capsules, not having

excessive shrinkage and splitting, which are not fully

ripe yet, retain a good color after drying. The tem-

perature and relative humidity of drying air inside the

drying chamber are the two important factors to be

controlled in the cardamom drying system. The rec-

ommended temperature for cardamom is 45–55



Cardamom are dried by different systems by kiln,

driers, electric driers, or infrared driers. Cardamom

drying has two phases; in the first phase, the surface

moisture and moisture in fleshy parts of the mesocarp

have to be removed, and in the second phase, the

moisture in the seeds inside has to be removed. Con-

trolled temperature, quick removal of the moisture,

and quick flushing out of moisture-laden air from

inside the drying chamber to prevent condensation

are basic criteria in the retention of a green color.

The dried cardamom capsules are placed into a

wiremesh cylinder. The wiremesh cylinder is swung

to separate the flower stalks, and the capsules are

cleaned by winnowing. The cleaned capsules

are packed in gunny bags lined with black polythene

sheet for better retention of green color during stor-

age. Grading of green cardamom is done according to

the standard specifications at the exporter level. Extra

Bold and Bold are the superior qualities.

Bleached Cardamom or White Cardamom

0020This processing is resorted to, especially in varieties

that do not retain the green color during drying or

lose the color during storage. This product fetches

lower prices. Freshly harvested ripe capsules are pre-

treated by soaking in a 1% solution of bleaching

powder for 30–60 min followed by dipping the lot

5470 SPICES AND FLAVORING (FLAVOURING) CROPS/Fruits and Seeds

in dilute HCl solution (0.2–0.5%) for 2–3 min. The

treated capsules are washed and sun-dried to 8%

moisture level. But the sulfur dioxide content was

found more in the capsule treated by the above

method, a simple treatment with hydrogen peroxide

(solution of 0.5% strength) has been standardized to

overcome this problem. Complete drying using a

solar cabinet dryer is obtained in 3 days in compari-

sion with 5 days under open sun-drying, and the color

of the capsules was white, the required bleaching

obtained without sulfur bleaching. The volatile oil

in cardamom is responsible for cardamom’s aroma

and therapeutic properties. Green cardamom yields

more oil than bleached cardamom.

Celery

0021 Celery is the dried fruit of Apium graveolens L.

(Apiaceae). The schizocarps are ovoid and laterally

compressed and occasionally possess a pedicel. The

mericarps, usually separated, are ovoid, slightly

curved, 1–2 mm by 0.5–1 mm, and light to olive

brown; the commissural surface is flat and the dorsal

surface convex and smooth, with five longitudinal

ridges (Figure 1w and x).

0022 In transverse section, the mericarps are equilater-

ally pentagonal; the exocarp has a striated cuticle,

and the epidermis has stomata – some of the cells

are papillose; the mericarp is parenchymatous, has

four to 15 vittae, of which two are on the commis-

sural side, and fibrovascular bundles occur in each

primary rib; the endocarp consists of a layer of tan-

gentially elongated cells with yellowish orange to

greenish yellow walls, and the spermoderm consists

of collapsed cells. The structure of the endosperm is

similar to that of anise (Figure 1y and z).

0023 The fruit bear a characteristic celery aroma and

taste. Celery yields 2–3% of pale yellow volatile oil,

which is valued both as a fixative and as an ingredient

of perfumes. Handling, drying, and storage of the

spice are also similar to those of anise. The quality

of celery depends upon its volatile oil content, and

hence, the higher the oil content, the better the qual-

ity. The seed yield shows a significant and positive

correlation with plant height, total umbels per plant,

number of umbellets per umbel, weight of the main

umbel, and number of seeds per umbel. All these

characters have a positive effect on celery seed yield.

Coriander

0024 Coriander spice is derived from the dried, ripe fruits

of Coriandrum sativum L. (Apiaceae). It was one of

the earliest spices used by mankind. The schizocarp is

globular, yellowish brown, 2–5 mm in diameter, with

five calyx teeth and a short, conical stylopodium at

the apex. Each mericarp has five prominent, straight,

longitudinal primary ribs and four undulate, second-

ary ribs, which are easily separated, being deeply

concave on the commissural side and convex on the

dorsal side (Figure 2a and b). In transverse section,

the exocarp consists of a layer of small, thick-walled

epidermal cells, and the mesocarp consists of several

rows of thin-walled, somewhat collapsed parenchy-

matous cells, separated from a broad continuous zone

of thick-walled, strongly lignified sclerenchyma

fibers. The commissural side has two large elliptical

vittae. The endocarp is a layer of tabular cells, and the

cells of the seed coat are tangentially elongated and

brownish. The structure of the endosperm is similar

to that of anise (Figure 2c and d).

0025The spice has a characteristically pleasant and

fragrant odor and an aromatic taste. Significant

variations for oil content in coriander have been

observed, ranging from 0.17 to 0.26%. The preferred

cultivars of the plant for essential oil production are

the small fruit varieties with a variable oil content of

4% or more. For spice use, however, it is the larger

fruits from Morocco and India that are more com-

monly preferred. It has been reported that large thick

skinned fruits are less aromatic and have a lower oil

content than the smaller thin skinned fruits. There is

no correlation between the number of fruits in the

main umbel and yield. The flowers on the branches in

the middle of the stalk are the most productive. It has

been found that the number of umbels per plant is the

chief contributing character and that the plant height

determines the yield. Handling, drying, and storage

are similar to those for anise.

Cumin

0026Cumin consists of the dried, ripe fruit of Cuminum

cyminum L. (Apiaceae). The schizocarps are about

6 mm long, attached to short pedicels, and separated

into mericarps. The fruit resembles caraway, but can

be distinguished by its straighter mericarps and bristly

hairs along the ribs (Figure 2e–h).

0027In the transverse section, the exocarp has an outer

epidermis bearing stomata, and a thin and striated

cuticle; the hairs on the secondary ridges are larger

than those on the primary ridges, being up to 2 mm

long, and multicellular with broad bases and rounded

apices; the mesocarp is parenchymatous, consisting of

five fibrovascular bundles beneath the primary ridges,

two vittae on the commissural side, and four vittae on

the dorsal side. The parenchymatous cells of the

endocarp have pale yellowish walls, and the seed

coat consists of a layer of epidermal cells, each

containing a prismatic crystal of calcium oxalate.

SPICES AND FLAVORING (FLAVOURING) CROPS/Fruits and Seeds 5471

(a)

(b)

(e)

(f)

(g)

(c)

(d)

(o)

(p)

(q)

(s)

(w)

(y)

(v)

Scl

Pal

End

Mes

Exo

(n)

(m)

(h)

(i)

(t)

(x)

(u)

Stc

Ocl

(k)

(j)

(l)

(r)

fig0002 Figure 2 Spices from fruits. Coriander: (a) schizocarp; (b) mericarp; (c) cross-section of mericarp; (d) cross-section through

primary ridge of pericarp. Cumin: (e) schizocarp: (f, g) mericarp; (h) cross-section of mericarp; (i) cross-section through ridge

of pericarp. Dill: (j) dorsal view of mericarp; (k, l) side views of mericarp; (m) cross-section of mericarp; (n) cross-section through

ridge of pericarp. Fennel: (o) schizocarp; (p, q) mericarp; (r) cross-section of mericarp; (s) cross-section through ridge of pericarp.

Star anise: (t, u) fruit; (v) cross-section of fruit and seed. Vanilla: (w) fruit; (x) transverse section of fruit; (y) secretory hairs.

Reproduced from Spices and Flavoring (Flavouring) Crops: Fruits and Seeds, Encyclopaedia of Food Science, Food Technology and Nu-

trition, Macrae R, Robinson RK and Sadler MJ (eds), 1993, Academic Press. Abbreviations: Ad, amylodextrin granules; Ag, aleurone

grains; Ar, aril; Bc, beaded cells; Bel, beaker cells; C, cuticle; Cc, compressed cells; Ch, chloroplast, Col, colenchyma; Cot, cotyledon;

Cp, carpophore; Cr, crystal; Crc, crystal cells; Cro, cross cells; Dl, dehiscence line; Em, embryo; End, endocarp; Ep, epidermis;

Es, endosperm; Exo, exocarp; Fl, fiber layer; Fo, fixed oil; Gc, giant cell; H, hair; Hc, hourglass cells; Hp, horny protein; Hy, hypodermis;

Li, light line; Mc, mucilage cells; Mes, mesocarp; Mp, mesophyl; O, oil; Oc, oil cavity; Ocl, oil cells; Or, oleoresin; P, pedicel; Pa,

parenchyma; Pal, palisade; Pe, perisperm; Pl, placenta; R, raphe; Rc, reticulated cells; Re, resin; Rub, rudimentary vascular bundle;

Sc, seed coat; Scl, sclerenchyma; Sd, seed; Se, secretory cells; St, starch; Stc, stone cells; V, vittae; Vb, vascular bundle.

5472 SPICES AND FLAVORING (FLAVOURING) CROPS/Fruits and Seeds

The endosperm is similar to that of anise fruits

(Figure 2h and i).

0028 The spice has a peculiar, strong odor, and the flavor

is warm and slightly bitter. The volatile oil content

varies from 3 to 6%. Handling, drying, and storage of

cumin are the same as those for anise.

Dill

0029 Dill consists of the dried and ripe fruits of Anethum

graveolens L. (Apiaceae), usually composed of separ-

ated mericarps, which are brown, glabrous, broadly

oval, and compressed (about 4 by 2.5 mm) with five

ribs – three short dorsal, and two lateral, yellowish

and wing-like (Figure 2j–m).

0030 The exocarp has a striated cuticle and an epidermal

layer of rectangular cells bearing stomata. The paren-

chymatous mesocarp has three fibrovascular bundles

below the dorsal ridges and two in lateral ridges. The

inner side of the vascular bundles consists of several

tangentially elliptical, sclerenchymatous cells having

reticulate thickenings. The mesocarp has two vittae

on the commissural side and four vittae on the dorsal

side. The seed coat consists of a layer of epidermal

cells, and the endosperm is similar to that of the anise

fruits (Figure 2m and n).

0031 The aromatic odor and taste of dill are similar to

those of caraway. Handling, drying, and storage are

as described for anise.

Fennel

0032 The spice is the dried fruit of Foeniculum vulgare

Miller (Apiaceae). The schizocarp is oblong-oval or

elliptical, usually with long pedicels (4–5mm by

1–3.5 mm); at the end is a short, conical stylopodium.

The mericarps are attached to a divided carpophore

and separate easily. Each is broadly elliptical, more or

less curved (dorsal surface is convex), and light brown

to light olive in color, with five prominent, longitu-

dinal, primary ribs (Figure 2o–q). Based on the ap-

pearance of the plant and seed and the compositional

data of the volatiles from the fruit, fennel is classified

into two subspecies and further classified into numer-

ous varieties. The important varieties are:

0033 F. vulgare ssp. piperitm wild fennel

0034 F. vulgare ssp. capillaceum with three varieties

0035 var. vulgare – bitter fennel

0036 var dulce – sweet fennels

0037 var. azoricum – culinary florence fennel.

0038 In transverse section, the epidermis of the exocarp

shows polygonal tabular cells, having occasional

stomata and a smooth cuticle; the mesocarp is

parenchymatous with two to four vittae on the com-

missural side and four vittae on the dorsal side,

whereas the endocarp consists of narrow, elongated

cells in a parquetry arrangement in a transverse

section as long, narrow, rectangular cells with groups

of short cells. The endosperm has a structure similar

to that of anise (Figure 2r and s).

0039Fennel has a pleasant, aromatic odor and a taste

resembling that of anise. The volatile oil content in

fennel ranges from 0.7 to 6.0%. The main constituent

of oil is anethole. Handling, drying, and storage of

this spice are also similar to those of anise.

Star Anise

0040Star anise is the ripe, dried fruit of Illicium verum

Hook. Filius (Magnoliaceae). The fruit whorl (2.5–

4.5 cm in diameter) is formed of six to eight (rarely

seven to nine), one-seeded, boat-shaped, woody,

wrinkled, ridged, reddish brown follicles that are

internally smooth, lustrous, and light brown, about

9–19 mm in length and surmounted on a curved ped-

uncle. The seed is light brown, compressed-ovoid,

shiny, and smooth with a conspicuous hilum and

raphe (Figure 2t and u).

0041In transverse section, the exocarp consists of a

striated cuticle and epidermal cells bearing stomata.

The mesocarp consists of parenchymatous cells with

brown contents. The cells towards the central zone

are larger (up to 220 mm in length), and the inner

mesocarp cells have thicker walls, the thickness

increasing towards the dehiscent side of the carpel.

Resin and stone cells occur scattered throughout the

mesocarp, and vascular bundles occur in between the

central and inner regions. The endocarp consists of

thin-walled, sclerenchymatous palisade cells up to

440 mm in length. The seed coat consists of an outer,

thick-walled epidermis of sclerenchymatous, pitted

palisade cells up to 200 mm in length, followed by

five layers of sclerenchyma and two or more layers

of parenchyma containing numerous calcium oxalate

crystals (Figure 2v). The odor and taste of star anise

are anise-like. The plant starts fruiting at the age of 6

years and continues until it is over 100 years old.

Fruits are collected before full maturity and dried in

the sun.

Vanilla

0042Vanilla is the cured, fully grown, unripe fruit of Van-

illa planifolia Andr. (Orchidaceae). The fruits are

linear and flattened (120–350 mm by 5–9mm), and

both ends taper; the fruit occasionally splits into three

parts in the tip; fruits are externally dusky to moder-

ate brown, longitudinally wrinkled and covered

SPICES AND FLAVORING (FLAVOURING) CROPS/Fruits and Seeds 5473

with minute crystals of vanillin; many minute seeds

are embedded in a brownish black, balsamic fluid

(Figure 2w and x).

0043 In transverse section, the outer epidermis of the

epicarp shows red to brown bodies, some with cal-

cium oxalate and vanillin crystals. The hypodermis is

composed of collenchymatous cells with dark-colored

contents, and the sarcocarp consists of loosely ar-

ranged, large deeply undulate parenchyma, becoming

smaller on the inner side; most cells contain brownish

contents and oily globules, and some have raphides of

calcium oxalate up to 400 mm long. There is an inter-

rupted circle of leptocentric fibrovascular bundles

surrounded by a few spiral or pitted tracheae. The

cells of the inner epidermis of the endocarp are elong-

ated into numerous, thin-walled, nearly straight,

glandular hairs containing a gummy, resinous secre-

tion (Figure 2x and y).

0044 At the time of harvest, in the vanilla fruit or pods,

the normal aromatic components forming the charac-

teristic vanilla flavor do not exist in their final form,

but appear only following a curing (fermentation)

process involving enzymatic actions on glucosides,

the most important of which is glucovanillin, which

produces vanillin (the main aromatic component of

vanilla) and sugar as a result of the action of glucosi-

dase. Similarly, aldehydes, protocatechoic acid,

benzoic acid, vanillic acids, anisic alcohol, etc. are

also formed. These different compounds impart

subtlety to the fragrance of natural vanillin.

0045 The different stages of the curing methods are as

follows:

0046 Cessation of the vegetative life of the bean to allow

the onset of enzymatic reactions.

0047 Raising of the temperature to promote this action

and to stimulate at first rapid drying, thereby pre-

venting the appearance of harmful fermentation.

0048 Slower drying followed by the production of

different fragrance components.

0049 Conditioning of the product, during which the

procedures for commercial presentation and to

obtain a good preservation are carried out.

The improved method involves sorting or grading,

scalding or blanching, autoclaving, loading, and

mechanically drying in a tunnel dryer, followed by

drying in the shade. After scalding and autoclaving,

the vanilla are chopped into 20- or 30-cm pieces. This

leads to an acceleration of the oxidative and enzym-

atic reactions. The cuts are put through the dryer

at a temperature of 65



C each day. As soon as they

come out, they are put into an isothermal chest for

the next 24 h, with the temperature being main-

tained at around 50



C. These operations are repeated

for 12 days, after which a product containing

20–25% moisture is obtained, with a yield of about

4.5 to 1.0. The transfer to the isothermal chests

after the tunnel drying is vital, in addition to equili-

brate their moisture content. The process requires a

series of sheds or buildings for ‘sunnings’ and ‘sweat-

ings’ and ‘mahogany sweating boxes’ or ‘aging

boxes.’ The total process takes about 5–6 months,

including aging. Finally, the beans are graded,

bundled, and packed in special tins lined with

waxed paper.

0050The best-grade beans are very dark, chocolate

brown in color, and oily in appearance with a strong

vanilla odor. Vanilla should be stored in a cool, dry

place in an airtight container to stop the beans

becoming brittle.

Fenugreek

0051Fenugreek is the dried seed of Trigonella foenum-grae-

cum L. (Fabaceae). The seeds are yellowish brown,

oblong–rhomboidal (2.5–5mm by 2–3.5 mm) with

an oblique furrow on one side, smooth, hard, and

mucilaginous. The hilum is in a notch, the raphe

short, the endosperm translucent, and the embryo

waxy and yellow (Figure 3a–d).

0052In cross-section, the spermoderm consists of an

outer cuticle followed by a layer of palisade cells

(measuring 65–70 mmby8–20 mm) with flat bases

and pointed apices, a layer of hourglass cells and

four to five layers of parenchyma. The endosperm

consists of an outer layer of cells containing aleurone

grains, followed by several layers of thin-walled

mucilaginous cells; the embryo cells contain aleurone

grains and fixed oil (Figure 3d).

0053Fenugreek possesses a strong, pleasant, sweetish

odor and tastes mucilaginous, farinaceous, and

slightly bitter. The pods split easily and are threshed

on the floor with sticks to free the seeds. The seeds

are then winnowed, cleaned, and further dried in

the sun. Dried fenugreek seeds can be stored for

about 2 years.

Mustard

0054Mustard is composed of the dried, mature seeds of the

following Brassica L. species (Brassicaceae): B. nigra

(L.) Koch (black mustard), B. alba Boiss. (white or

yellow mustard), and B. juncea (L.) Czern & Coss.

(Rye or Indian mustard).

0055Black mustard seeds are globular, 1–1.6 mm in

diameter, dark brown to nearly black, minutely

reticulate, and mucilaginous. The kernel is greenish

yellow and oily (Figure 3e and f). White mustard

seeds are spherical, about 2 mm in diameter, minutely

5474 SPICES AND FLAVORING (FLAVOURING) CROPS/Fruits and Seeds

Pal

Cot

Crc

(l)

(m)

(s)

Pal

Rub

Cot

(r)(q)

Ocl

(k)

(j)

(d)

(e)

(f)

(c)

(a)

(b)

Cot

(n)

(o)

(p)

(g)

(i)

Pal

Col

(h)

fig0003 Figure 3 Spices from seeds. Fenugreek: (a) seed; (b) longitudinal section of seed; (c) transverse section of seed; (d) cross-section

through seed coat, endosperm and part of cotyledon. Mustard black: (e, f) seed; (g) cross-section through seed coat, endosperm and

part of cotyledon; (h) Mustard, white or yellow: (i) cross-section through seed coat, endosperm and part of cotyledon. Nutmeg and

mace: (j) nutmeg surrounded by mace; (k) same as (j), cut longitudinally; (l) cross-section through perisperm and endosperm of

nutmeg; (m) cross-section through mace. Poppy: (n, o) seed; (p) cross-section through seed coat, endosperm and part of cotyledon.

Sesame: (a, r) seed; (s) cross-section of seed. Reproduced from Spices and Flavoring (Flavouring) Crops: Fruits and Seeds, Encyclo-

paedia of Food Science, Food Technology and Nutrition, Macrae R, Robinson RK and Sadler MJ (eds), 1993, Academic Press. Abbrevi-

ations: Ad, amylodextrin granules; Ag, aleurone grains; Ar, aril; Bc, beaded cells; Bel, beaker cells; C, cuticle; Cc, compressed cells;

Ch, chloroplast, Col, colenchyma; Cot, cotyledon; Cp, carpophore; Cr, crystal; Crc, crystal cells; Cro, cross cells; Dl, dehiscence line;

Em, embryo; End, endocarp; Ep, epidermis; Es, endosperm; Exo, exocarp; Fl, fiber layer; Fo, fixed oil; Gc, giant cell; H, hair; Hc,

hourglass cells; Hp, horny protein; Hy, hypodermis; Li, light line; Mc, mucilage cells; Mes, mesocarp; Mp, mesophyl; O, oil; Oc, oil

cavity; Ocl, oil cells; Or, oleoresin; P, pedicel; Pa, parenchyma; Pal, palisade; Pe, perisperm; Pl, placenta; R, raphe; Rc, reticulated

cells; Re, resin; Rub, rudimentary vascular bundle; Sc, seed coat; Scl, sclerenchyma; Sd, seed; Se, secretory cells; St, starch; Stc,

stone cells; V, vittae; Vb, vascular bundle.

SPICES AND FLAVORING (FLAVOURING) CROPS/Fruits and Seeds 5475

pitted, and mucilaginous (Figure 3h). Indian mustard

seeds resemble black mustard but are larger and

brown in colour.

0056 The testa of black mustard in transverse section

consists of an outer epidermis of polygonal tubular

cells, 40–50 mm long, containing mucilage; hypoder-

mis consists of empty, polygonal cells, 10–105 mmby

60–90 mm; the inner epidermis of testa consists of

slightly lignified, palisade cells (unequal in height)

followed by cells of tegmen containing tannin. The

endosperm has an outer aleurone layer of thick-

walled cells containing fixed oil and aleurone grains

and an underlying layer of collapsed cells. Embryo

cells are polyhedral and thin-walled, containing fixed

oil and aleurone grains (Figure 3g). White mustard in

transverse section resembles black mustard but differs

in that it has two layers of somewhat collenchyma-

tous cells beneath the epidermis of the testa; the pal-

isade cells have no tannin (Figure 3i).

0057 Black mustard is slightly odorous, and tastes acrid

and pungent when crushed and moistened. White

mustard seed is not pungent. The fruits are harvested

when they begin to turn yellow. Then, they are

threshed by beating with wooden mallets. The

threshed seeds are separated from the husks by

winnowing and then dried in the sun for a couple of

days. Seeds are stored in seed bins or gunny bags.

Storage of the whole seed for 12 months reduces the

volatile oil content by 54%, but for ground seeds, the

loss is 84%.

Nutmeg and Mace

0058 Nutmeg is the dried kernel, and mace is the dried aril

of the seed of Myristica fragrans Hout. (Myristica-

ceae). The kernel constitutes 16–17% and mace con-

stitutes 2.0–2.5% by weight of the fruit. Nutmegs are

ovoid (2–3.5 cm by 1.5–3 cm) and the kernels are

grayish brown externally and reticulately marked

with small furrows. Numerous minute, dark reddish

brown points and lines, constituting a thin layer of

perisperm, grow inwards into the endosperm at the

furrows; the hilum lies in a small, circular depression

at one end (Figure 3j and k). Mace consists of flat-

tened lobed pieces about 25 mm or more in length,

somewhat less in breadth, 1 mm thick, buff or light

brown, translucent, smooth, horny and brittle (Figure

3j and k).

0059 In longitudinal section, nutmeg has a perisperm

about 0.12 mm thick. The cells of the peripheral peri-

sperm are flattened and polyhedral; some contain

prisms of an unidentified crystalline substance. The

cells of the inner perisperm are parenchymatous, and

grow into endosperm, blunt-ended ruminations, each

containing a vascular strand and numerous volatile

oil-containing cells. The endosperm contains abun-

dant bunches of needle-shaped, fat crystals, small,

irregular aleurone grains with large crystalloid and

rounded (up to 22 mm in diameter) simple or

compound starch grains and scattered tannoid cells

(Figure 3l).

0060In transverse section, mace has the following:

anouter epidermis of irregularly shaped, thick-walled

cells covered by cuticle; a hypodermis consisting of a

layer of thick-walled cells and one or more additional

layers of comparatively thin-walled cells; a parenchy-

matous mesophyl consisting of densely packed amy-

lodextrin granules, numerous large oleoresin cells and

vascular tissues (Figure 3m).

0061Nutmeg and mace have a characteristic nut-like

aroma and taste. The volatile oil content of nutmeg

and mace is 15 and 20%, respectively. The fruits are

harvested when split on the tree or, more usually,

gathered after they have fallen to the ground. Mace

is separated from the pericarp by hand or between

boards, without breakage (which reduces its quality),

and dried in the sun or artificially. Drying of mace and

its storage is a delicate process. Mace has to be dried

to a 5% moisture level, for which it takes about 16 h

under open sun, 24–28 h in the shade, and 5–6h in

mechanical drying. A mild blanching followed by

sulfiting helps in the retention of color and quality

of mace. Nutmegs are dried in their shells on large

wooden trays and turned daily for uniform drying

and to avoid fermentation. Artificial drying between

35 and 40



C prevents cracking of the shells and any

melting of fat in the kernels. Various traditional

methods are practiced to crack the nuts, which are

stored and graded according to size and quality. This

involves immersing the nutmegs in water and separ-

ating unhealthy or floating ones; the sound ones are

drained, air-dried, and stored in bins before packing.

Introducing a little carbon disulfide prevents insect

attack.

Poppy Seeds

0062Poppy seeds are obtained from Papaver somniferum

L. (Papaveraceae) capsules. The seeds are white,

yellow, brown, bluish or nearly black, and subreni-

form (1–1.25 mm long), with a reticulate surface; the

hilum and micropyle are situated in a depression near

one end (Figure 3n and o).

0063In cross-section, the seed consists of an outer epi-

dermis of tangentially elongated, thin-walled cells, a

layer of parenchymatous cells containing numerous

very small prismatic crystals of calcium oxalate, a

layer of thick walled cells, a layer of parenchymatous

cells, and a layer of thick-walled reticulate cells. The

cells of the endosperm and embryo are polygonal and

5476 SPICES AND FLAVORING (FLAVOURING) CROPS/Fruits and Seeds