Caballero B. (ed.) Encyclopaedia of Food Science, Food Technology and Nutrition. Ten-Volume Set

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contents are quite low. This property makes legumes

a natural complement to cereal products, which con-

tain high levels of sulfur amino acids and relatively

low levels of the essential amino acid lysine. In

general, legumes exhibit a large variation in amino

acid content, depending mainly on the environmental

conditions.

0034 Legume protein has often been categorized as poor

and of low biological value. This has mainly been

attributed to the low concentration of sulfur amino

acids and poor digestibility. Besides proteinase inhi-

bitors, the poor digestibility of legumes is caused

by trypsin inhibitors, lectin, tannins, and phytates.

Trypsin inhibitors not only reduce the digestibility of

legume protein but also remove a significant fraction

of cysteine, which is already low. Lectin is a phyto-

hemagglutinin that combines with cells lining the in-

testinal wall and causes nonspecific interference with

absorption of nutrients. Tannins are known to form

complexes with proteins, which decrease the digest-

ibility and amino acid availability. Phytic acid inter-

acts with protein to form phytate–protein complexes

that are insoluble. The most efficient way to improve

the digestibility of legume protein is through heat pro-

cessing. By heating in the presence of water, proteins

can easily denature and become subject to proteolytic

enzymes to aid digestibility. (See Protein: Quality.)

0035 Lipids In general, food legumes tend to have higher

lipid contents than cereals. The lipid content of pulses

ranges from 1 to 7%, while soybeans and peanuts

contain 20–45% lipids. Due to their high lipid con-

tent, soybeans and peanuts are very good sources of

edible oil. The fatty acid composition of legumes

varies, with the predominant fraction being the un-

saturated oleic and linoleic acids. Oils from temper-

ate-zone legumes tend to have more unsaturated fatty

acid components than those of the tropic regions.

Some legumes also contain considerable amounts of

linolenic acid. (See Fats: Occurrence.)

0036 Vitamins and minerals The vitamin content and

availability in legumes vary as a result of both genetic

and environmental factors. Legumes are very good

sources of B vitamins. The thiamin contents of legumes

are usually equivalent to, or higher than, those of

cereal grains. Legumes contain small amounts of ribo-

flavin but tend to be a good source of nicotinic acid.

The pantothenic acid content of legumes is less than

that of cereal grains, but in comparison with most

common foods, legumes are good sources of folic

acid. In general, legumes contain very small amounts

of vitamins.

0037 The mineral content of legumes is in the range of

2.5–4.2%. The most predominant mineral found in

legumes is phosphorus, averaging around 300 mg per

100 g. The calcium and iron contents of legumes are

variable, but in general, legumes are good sources.

Minerals are more concentrated in the seed coat of

legumes than in the cotyledons, but because of the

size of the cotyledon, most of the total mineral con-

tent is found in this fraction.

0038Antinutritional factors The most prevalent antinu-

tritional factors in legumes are those dealing with

protein, but there are also a number of other factors

that decrease the nutritional value of food legumes.

One such factor is the presence of goitrogens in

oilseeds. Goitrogens are thioglycosides or glucosino-

lates that react with iodine and lead to the formation

of goiter in humans. This effect can be counteracted

in soybeans by heating, but not in peanuts. Another

problem with legumes is the presence of mineral che-

lating agents such as phytic and oxalic acid. This can

lead to a decrease in the availability of certain trace

minerals, thus causing anemia. (See Plant Antinutri-

tional Factors: Characteristics.)

0039Cyanogenic glycosides that are naturally present

in legumes can be cleaved by the action of the

b-glucosidase enzyme producing cyanide, which is

a toxicant. Other antinutritional compounds in le-

gumes include a-amylase inhibitors, saponins, aller-

gens, and toxic amino acids that have been known to

exhibit antivitamin and antihormonal activity.

Processing and Food Use of Legumes

Storage of Food Legumes

0040Food legumes are stored at all levels from farmer to

trader in various types of storage units until the next

season’s harvest. Farmers generally retain a portion of

their harvest for family consumption, for seed, and

for animal feed. In developing nations, legume stor-

age is done at the trader and government levels as

insurance against future crops of low yield or poor

quality and against fluctuation in price and market

demand. Losses of legume seeds due to storage are

quite high in comparison to other crops. These losses

are the result of physical, biological, and engineering

factors. Physical factors causing loss are temperature,

moisture, and oxygen concentration. Biological

causes of loss are birds, rodents, insects, mites, bac-

teria, and yeast. Engineering factors resulting in loss

are storage structures and process handling equip-

ment.

Food Uses of Legumes

0041Typically, the leaves, stalks, and seed coats of legumes

are used as animal feed in many underdeveloped

PULSES 4885

countries of the world. These parts of the plant are

generally not used as human food at a household level

but may find use in some bulk products. Humans

usually consume legumes in the form of whole seeds

in a variety of ways. One of the most common ways in

which legume seeds are consumed by humans is in the

form of a dhal. A dhal is a legume seed that has been

physically or mechanically separated at the cotyle-

don, resulting in dehusked, split cotyledons that are

then soaked in water and cooked. Cooked dhals are

seasoned appropriately and consumed with cereal-

based products such as bread or cooked rice.

Seasoning for legume seeds varies considerably by

region, with common seasonings being onion, garlic,

cilantro, green chilies, ginger root, black mustard

seeds, cumin seeds, anise seeds, coriander, and tur-

meric. To prepare these dishes, the seeds and season-

ings are heated separately and then mixed and boiled,

resulting in a soup-like product. In addition to this

common method of consumption, a variety of differ-

ent products are prepared from food legumes.

0042 Soaking legumes in water is often the first step to

prepare the seeds for consumption or processing.

Seeds are usually soaked for up to 24 h to loosen the

hulls and help remove antinutrients such as tannins,

oligosaccharides, and b-glysosides. In many cases,

food legumes are germinated to form sprouts.

Legume sprouts are a very important part of the diet

in the Far East. By germinating legumes, the flavor

and nutritional properties of the seeds are improved

through the breakdown of antinutrients and phytic

acid, which leads to flatulence.

0043 Another legume process traditionally used in

Africa and Asia is milling or removal of the outer

portion of the seed. Milling occurs at all levels from

the home kitchen to large-scale commercial oper-

ations. Prior to milling, legume seeds are often pre-

treated using wet and dry methods to aid in hull

removal. The wet method involves mixing legume

seeds with small amounts of water, followed by

draining and sun drying. The dry method, commonly

used in India, involves sun drying legume seeds that

have been treated with oil and a very small amount of

water. Both methods cause shrinkage of the endo-

sperm, thus loosening the seed coat for easy removal

by milling. The resulting legume flour is used to make

a variety of breads and pastries.

0044 One of the oldest methods of food processing that

is often used with food legumes is fermentation. In

many parts of the world, fermented legume products

serve a very important function in the diet. Most

fermented legume products are widely used in Asia

and India but are rapidly gaining popularity in

the western hemisphere. Legume-based fermented

products are popular because of their texture and

organoleptic characteristics. By fermenting legumes,

it is possible to eliminate undesirable flavor, improve

digestibility, prolong shelf-life, and increase the safety

of the food. Popular legume-based fermented prod-

ucts include soy sauce, shoyu, miso, sufu, natto, and

tempeh. Food legumes are also very popular in the

canning industry. Most of this is the increased popu-

larity of refried beans, soups, and other ready-to-eat

dishes.

Byproduct Processing

0045Whole legumes, although produced and used widely

throughout the world, have a low market value in

comparison to other food commodities. To increase

the value of legumes, some processors isolate func-

tional byproducts from whole seeds. By far the most

popular legume byproduct, due to its high availabil-

ity, is protein. Legume protein concentrates and isol-

ates are prepared by air classification and solvent

solubilization. Air classification is a physical method

in which legume flour is separated by density into a

protein concentrate and a starch-rich fraction. In

solvent solubilization techniques, soluble protein is

removed from insoluble material by centrifugation,

followed by an acid precipitation. Other byproducts

of food legumes include starch and dietary fiber,

which can be used to fortify and increase the func-

tionality of various food products.

See also: Beans; Goitrogens and Antithyroid

Compounds; Legumes: Legumes in the Diet; Dietary

Importance; Peanuts; Peas and Lentils; Plant

Antinutritional Factors: Characteristics; Soy (Soya)

Beans: The Crop

Further Reading

Arora SK (1983) Chemistry and Biochemistry of Legumes.

India: Oxonian Press.

Hedley CL (2001) Carbohydrates in Grain Legume Seeds:

Improving Nutritional Quality and Agronomic Charac-

teristics. New York: CABI.

Huisman J, van der Poel TFB and Liener IE (1988) Recent

advances of research in antinutritional factors in legume

seeds. In: Proceedings of the First International Work-

shop on ‘Antinutritional Factors (ANF) in Legume

Seeds,‘ November 23–25, 1988, Wageningen, The Neth-

erlands.

Matthews RH (1989) Legumes – Chemistry, Technology

and Human Nutrition. New York: Marcel Dekker.

Nwokolo E and Smartt J (1996) Food and Feed from

Legumes and Oilseeds. New York: Chapman & Hall.

Salunkhe DK and Kadam SS (1989) Handbook of World

Food Legumes: Nutritional Chemistry, Processing Tech-

nology, and Utilization, vols. 1–3. Boca Raton, FL: CRC

Press.

4886 PULSES

Salunkhe DK, Kadam SS and Chavan JK (1985) Postharvest

Biotechnology of Food Legumes. Boca Raton, FL: CRC

Press.

Smartt J (1990) Grain Legumes: Evolution and Genetic

Resources. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Sosulski F and Garratt MD (1976) Functional properties of

ten legume flours. Journal of the Canadian Institute of

Food Science and Technology 9: 66–69.

Summerfield RJ and Roberts EH (1985) Grain Legume

Crops. London: Collins Professional and Technical

Books.

Pyridoxine See Vitamin B

: Properties and Determination; Physiology

PULSES 4887

Q Fever See Zoonoses

QUALITY ASSURANCE AND QUALITY

CONTROL

P J Molnar, Central Food Research Institute,

Budapest, Hungary

Background

0001 A principal factor in the performance of a food

enterprise is the quality of its products. There is a

worldwide trend towards more stringent customer

expectations with regard to food quality and safety.

Accompanying this trend has been a growing realiza-

tion that continual improvements in quality are often

necessary to achieve and sustain good economic per-

formance.

0002 Today, every customer demands quality from their

supplier. In particular, the last customer in the chain

of suppliers and customers – the consumer – has

increasingly placed vociferous demands on quality

in the sense that (1) the future of the world will not

be endangered by harm to the environment resulting

from food production and (2) the consumer will

suffer no economic damage or injury to health as a

result of the consumption of food components.

Definition and Description of Food Quality

and Safety

0003 The quality of food can be defined as a composite of

characteristics which affect the ability of foods to

satisfy definite requirements and which determine its

fitness for consumption.

0004 Quality in this sense can be discussed under three

headings:

0005Sensory quality, the basic characteristics of which

are the product’s color, appearance, texture, ten-

derness, juiciness, taste, and smell; these charac-

teristics, being easily perceptible, are the basis of

evaluation and preference on the part of con-

sumers. (See Sensory Evaluation: Sensory Charac-

teristics of Human Foods.)

0006Nutritive value, which determines the content

and level of essential nutrients (biological value),

some microbial components (e.g., desirable lactic

bacteria), energy content, dietary value, digest-

ibility, and availability. (See Bioavailability of

Nutrients.)

0007Convenience and technological quality, character-

izing the easy handling and functionality of a food

product, to manufacturers and tradesmen and

then to consumers; these qualities are based on

characteristics such as shelf-life, processing level,

good price–quality relation, durability, ease of

storage and transportation, dimensions, function-

ality, and usefulness in the production of definite

food products. (See Storage Stability: Mechanisms

of Degradation; Parameters Affecting Storage Sta-

bility; Shelf-life Testing.)

Wholesomeness, also called food safety or food

hygiene, may be defined as the result of all condi-

tions and measures that are necessary during the

production, processing, storage, distribution, and

preparation of food to ensure that it is safe, sound,

wholesome, and fit for human consumption. The aim

of all these conditions and measures is to protect the

health of people as consumers and to ensure fair

practice in the food trade.

0008 The wholesomeness of food determines its fitness

for consumption, the classification of which should

be based on specified sanitary criteria. The bases of

these criteria are the assumptions that a food product

must not (1) be harmful to human health, (2) have

undergone deterioration (spoilage), (3) have been

adulterated, and (4) have been produced, distributed,

or stored under improper sanitary or physical condi-

tions.

0009 Factors harmful to food consumers include the

following:

0010 Pathogenic microorganisms and their toxins.

0011 Pathogenic parasites and products of their metab-

olism.

0012 Foreign substances, or their degradation products,

with toxicity to humans. (See Parasites: Occur-

rence and Detection; Spoilage: Bacterial Spoilage;

Molds in Spoilage; Yeasts in Spoilage.)

In relation to pathogenic microorganisms and

parasites, there is an obligatory sanitory rule, which

states that they must not occur in foods owing to their

decisively negative influence on human health. For-

eign substances may be differentiated as follows:

0013 Food additives introduced intentionally to foods

to improve their utilization quality, and

0014Technical and accidental contaminations present

in food as residues resulting from technological

processes or environmental pollution. These in-

clude toxic metals, pesticides, medicines, fodder

supplements (premix), and growth stimulants.

(See Contamination of Food; Food Additives:

Safety.)

The main components of food quality and safety

are shown in Figure 1.

Role of Quality Assurance and Quality

Control

0015Quality assurance can be characterized by the quality

loop for processed food (Figure 2). Quality assurance

is consistent only if the origins of lack of quality are

eliminated, or the emergence of faults is excluded

from the beginning: problems result in, rather than

originate from, exceeded limits of contamination,

adulteration, etc. The quality-assurance system is

based on the following:

0016Product planning and development, including the

results of marketing and market research.

0017Education and training for management and qual-

ity staff as well as for each counterpart.

Overall food quality

Public health safety

Food not

suitable

for human

consumption

Limits exceeded

Hazards too high

Limits not

exceeded

Nutritive value Convenience

Shelf life

Packaging

Processing level

Chemical components

(vitamins, minerals,

dietary fiber, etc.)

Microbial components

(e.g. desired lactic

bacteria)

Energy content

Sensory quality

Appearance

Color

Smell

Texture

Flavor

Food quality

(food suitable for human consumption)

hazards

Level of microbial (pathogens

and their toxins)

Parasitic (parasites and their

metabolites)

Toxic and radioactive

contaminants

fig0001 Figure 1 Main components of food quality and safety.

4890 QUALITY ASSURANCE AND QUALITY CONTROL

3.0018 Application of a statistical control method and

sampling inspection plan in process control

and for final inspection.

0019 Responsibility for the quality in each step of the

quality loop.

0020 Use of an information and motivation system on

product quality.

Assisted by the internal quality system of a company

and with additional commitment from the exter-

nal quality partners (suppliers and customers), the

product-oriented quality-assurance system is struc-

tured in the following steps:

0021 Definition of requirements and responsibilities

with regard to the quality of individual activities,

processes, and materials.

0022 Definition of the desired properties and required

parameters of the product.

0023 Definition of materials, technologies, packagings,

storage conditions, number and qualification of

personnel, etc.

0024 Analysis of possible sources of faults and factors

affecting quality.

0025Definition of the quality-assurance actions: infor-

mation, education, training, motivation, param-

eters of investigations, methods of analysis and

sampling documentation, etc.

0026Risk assessment and hazard analysis critical con-

trol point (HACCP).

0027Definition of responsibilities for certain quality-

assurance actions.

Appropriate quality-control procedures should be

part of the process to ensure product safety and qual-

ity and hence part of the company quality assurance

system. Figure 3 shows the quality control of food

manufacturing, including inspection and laboratory

investigation, in a general flow chart.

0028All plant operations should be controlled by writ-

ten procedures and records of performance data. The

range and complexity of procedures vary, depending

upon the size and scope of the operation. However,

management personnel of even the smallest operation

should be aware of the need for quality control con-

sistent with the type of food products being manufac-

tured, stored, or distributed. In larger, more complex

operations, the inspector should determine whether

Quality

evaluation

Quality maintenance

of processed food

Customers

Suppliers

of agricultural

inputs

Agricultural

production

(farming)

Specification

of agricultural

raw material

by specific inputs

Production of

raw material

of specific

quality

Agroprocessing

companies

Quality measurement

of raw material

Grading of

raw material

Impact of processing

technologies on

quality of

processed food

Inspections

of quality of

processed

products

Retailers

Wholesalers

Quality maintenance

of processed food

Quality inspections

of customers

authorities

Customer authorities

in importing country

Quality maintenance

of processed food

Transport and

storage companies

fig0002 Figure 2 Quality loop for processed food: flow of products and flow of information on quality requirements. , main food chain;

background information flow.

QUALITY ASSURANCE AND QUALITY CONTROL 4891

written control procedures exist and should review

records detailing results of quality-control testing

relating to product safety or other factors where regu-

latory requirements exist.

0029 The quality-control department analyses any

planned production changes. Final approval for pro-

duction should not be given until all quality-control

records have been reviewed and properly endorsed by

the quality-control management team.

0030 Laboratory personnel and equipment must be

evaluated to determine whether or not they are

able to carry out all their responsibilities under

the firm’sspecifications and existing regulations.

Laboratory inspection should include spot checks

of in-process controls made by personnel on the

production lines.

Implementation in Food Production (Good

Manufacturing Practice)

0031 The guidelines on good manufacturing practice

(GMP), elaborated and published initially for drugs,

were later modified for human foods and oriented

mainly to food safety. The formulated criteria apply

in determining whether or not the facilities, methods,

practices, and controls used in the manufacture, pro-

cessing, packing, or holding of food conform with, or

are operated or administered in line with, GMP to

ensure that food for human consumption is safe and

has been prepared, packed, and held under sanitary

conditions.

0032More recently, systematic, rule-based approaches

to quality assurance have been widely applied, most

notably that based on the HACCP program. Such

techniques provide ways of applying our current

knowledge of microbial ecology of food in a system-

atic manner to ensure that nothing is overlooked and

that the risk of microbiological food contamination

is minimized. (See Hazard Analysis Critical Control

Point.)

0033The HACCP program includes an assessment of

potential microbiological, chemical, and physical

hazards, prescribes the elimination of avoidable

hazards, and sets tolerances for the hazards that

cannot be eliminated in the processing of food.

It defines the appropriate control measures, the

tests to be carried out, and the criteria for product

acceptance. It gives a rational systematic docu-

mented procedure which can be used for organiz-

ing and implementing the entire quality-assurance

program.

0034However, GMP includes not only food safety, but

also, as a part of the quality-assurance system, the

application of product specifications. The specifica-

tion for a product is usually the description of the

requirements with which the product has to comply.

These can have a regulatory, commercial, or in-house

basis. Specifications are an integral part of product

development, manufacture, marketing, and sales.

From primary producer to the retail trade, each in-

dustry has its own specific requirements in the de-

scription of the following characteristics of their

products:

0035name;

0036product description;

0037specific properties;

0038sensory attributes;

0039chemical parameters;

0040physical data;

0041microbiological parameters;

0042shelf-life;

0043storage conditions;

0044packaging and labeling;

0045handling;

0046proper sampling and test methods.

From a company viewpoint, specifications can have

an internal and external function. The internal func-

tion comprises purchasing criteria, incoming goods

control, and recording of knowledge and information

in a systematic and accessible way. The external func-

tion includes sales criteria, sampling procedures, and

quality control of finished products. It simplifies

Fresh

Purchased raw

Raw material

Wash, sort, trim

Empty containers

Product

Product filler

Container sealing

Raw material

Retorting (processing)

Postretort handling

Warehousing

Sample

Laboratory

Sample

Closure

fig0003 Figure 3 General flow chart including quality control.

4892 QUALITY ASSURANCE AND QUALITY CONTROL

functional contacts between companies and can serve

as a base for product comparisons. This has led to the

development of quality system standards and guide-

lines that complement relevant product requirements

given in the technical specifications.

0047 The International Standards Organization (ISO)

9000 series of standards set by the ISO embodies a

rationalization of the many and various national ap-

proaches in this sphere which must be applied in

adequate form under the circumstances of the food

industry. According to this standard, an increasing

number of food companies have a quality-assurance

handbook or quality manual covering the following

main topics:

0048 General quality policy.

0049 Description of the quality system and the responsi-

bilities and interrelationships of all operating and

staff functions.

0050 General description of quality planning require-

ments, with specific details for each product

category where appropriate.

0051 Policy requirements for specific elements of the

system (relating to GMP) and procedures which

implement these policies.

The quality manual is of direct benefit not only to the

producer (e.g., cost reduction, help in product liabil-

ity cases, or improved competitively), but also to the

consumer, who will perceive its effect as a high level

of quality that will be produced and maintained by

the application of an integrated and documented

quality-assurance system.

0052 Food-quality and safety programs in many coun-

tries are currently in a period of reevaluation and

change. Risks to consumers resulting from hazards

in food largely depend on the means available to

prevent, eliminate, or reduce the risks to acceptable

levels through the food chain. Management of food-

borne risks in these terms is a complex independent

activity, and risk-management strategies must include

consideration of all options, including general ap-

proaches such as adherence to GMP, good agricul-

tural practice, good veterinary practice, consumer

education, and labeling.

0053 Total quality management (TQM) is a modern

term to describe how firms are becoming more suc-

cessful today. The results of TQM are significant in

productivity gains, unit cost reduction, elimination of

most consumer complaints, and winning consumers

by always giving them what they expect. TQM based

on GMP and HACCP includes quality assurance and

quality control as well as problem-solving by team

work, and by the quality tools, risk management,

cost of quality and rewards.

Implementation in the Food Laboratory

(Good Laboratory Practice)

0054Whereas quality assurance of the work performed by

laboratories was formerly based largely on confi-

dence in the individual laboratory and in individual

members of staff, a more formalized requirement has

recently been developed for factual documentation of

quality in the results of the investigations presented.

In this respect, the work has proceeded largely along

international lines where, for example, the ISO has

been extremely active.

0055Incorrect results from a laboratory may have ser-

ious health or economic consequences as a result of

an unsuitable food incorrectly being assessed as

suitable, or by unnecessary rejection of an acceptable

food. To ensure reliable analytical results and avoid

mistakes, the laboratories must continuously check

and improve the quality of analytical work.

0056The quality manual, which consists of general

advice for ‘quality assurance,’ should be supple-

mented with more detailed regulations for individual

laboratories. Consequently, it is recommended that

each laboratory prepare its own quality-assurance

directives in a quality manual as a supplement to the

general principles. A quality manual is individual and

therefore differs from laboratory to laboratory, and so

each laboratory needs to prepare its own manual.

However, the following information is necessary in

almost every case:

0057Requirements placed on the laboratory: staff

(management, experts, chemists, physicists,

microbiologists, etc.); premises (type and extent

of the activities); apparatus (equipment, instru-

ments, etc.); glassware and plastic equipment;

chemicals, gases, and solvents.

0058Sampling (sampling and sampling staff do not

necessarily belong to the laboratory).

0059Sample reception at the laboratory: marking and

keeping records; storage of samples before

and after analysis.

0060Sample preparation.

0061Selection of methodology.

0062Defining method (type I) is one which deter-

mines a value that can only be arrived at in

terms of the method per se and serves for cali-

bration purposes.

0063Reference method (type II) is designated where

type I methods do not apply. It should be selected

from type III methods and should be recom-

mended for use in cases of dispute and for cali-

bration purposes.

0064Alternative approved method (type III) is one

which meets the criteria required by the Codex

QUALITY ASSURANCE AND QUALITY CONTROL 4893

Committee on Methods of Analysis and Sam-

pling for methods that may be used for control,

inspection, or regulatory purposes.

0065 Tentative method (type IV) is one which has

been used traditionally or else has been recently

introduced but for which the criteria required for

acceptance by the Codex Committee on

Methods of Analysis and Sampling have not yet

been determined.

0066 Documentation and reporting: registration; la-

boratory register; analytical documentation; use

of computers and electronic data processing;

method description.

0067 Quality assurance of analytical results: acceptance

criteria for an evaluation of analytical results;

standard substances, recovery tests, and reference

materials; repeated determinations; intercalibra-

tion and collaborative tests; control chart.

The intention with a quality manual is to provide a

general survey of the factors that influence analytical

reliability at the food laboratories. The implementa-

tion of good laboratory practice and the guidelines

should be of value to all the staff working within

the laboratory and should inspire the creation of

efficiently operating quality-assurance systems for

laboratory work within the food companies.

(See Analysis of Food.)

See also: Analysis of Food; Bioavailability of Nutrients;

Contamination of Food; Food Additives: Safety;

Hazard Analysis Critical Control Point; Parasites:

Occurrence and Detection; Sensory Evaluation: Sensory

Characteristics of Human Foods; Spoilage: Bacterial

Spoilage; Molds in Spoilage; Yeasts in Spoilage; Storage

Stability: Mechanisms of Degradation; Parameters

Affecting Storage Stability; Shelf-life Testing