Caballero B. (ed.) Encyclopaedia of Food Science, Food Technology and Nutrition. Ten-Volume Set

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inhibition of wound healing, increasing the reducing

sugar content, and the problem of toxic residues.

TCNB, CIPC, and IPC treatments are to be coupled

with cold storage, as they are ineffective at tropical

ambient temperatures (> 20



C). The sodium salt of

NAA (1000 p.p.m.) is an effective and economical

postharvest sprout-retardant for storing potatoes

under tropical ambient conditions (Table 9).

0028 Several naturally occurring volatile and aromatic

compounds have proved to be potent sprout inhibi-

tors, but their acceptability for commercial applica-

tion needs further investigation. Ware potatoes (those

potatoes intended for human consumption in contrast

to seed potatoes) can be kept sprout-free for a long

time by irradiation, but its economic feasibility

remains to be ascertained. Irradiated tubers need to

be stored below 20



C, and irradiation often lead

to increased Fusarium attack and discoloration after

cooking. Controlled-atmosphere (CA) storage of

potatoes with as low as 5% carbon-dioxide concen-

tration causes black heart and low oxygen concen-

trations inhibit wound healing; therefore CA storage

appears not to be beneficial. Sprout inhibition beyond

3 months at tropical temperatures (22–35



C) is pos-

sible by periodical vapor heat treatment at 60



C, RH

95% for 60 min (Table 9). This method is superior to

manual desprouting, and avoids the use of toxic

chemicals. Hot-water dip treatment at 57.5



C for

20 or 30 min prior to storage at 18



C enhances

storability, by inhibiting sprouting and spoilage by

Fusarium and Erwinia.(See Irradiation of Foods:

Applications.)

0029 Evaporative cooling systems can be used effect-

ively in tropical conditions to store potatoes. The

containers needed for this storage can be fabricated

locally using brick, sand, bamboo, and metal sheets;

it is a cheaper method of storing potatoes, with re-

duced water loss, at farm level (Table 10). These

containers maintain a high RH (85–95%) in the

atmosphere and the tuber temperature, which is

close to the wet bulb temperature, is the lowest

possible for evaporative cooling. Seed potatoes are

often exposed to natural or artificial light during

storage, as light retards physiological aging, inhibits

sprout growth, and increases resistance to fungal

infections. On the other hand, exposure of ware

potatoes to light should be avoided, as it leads to

the formation of the toxic a-solanine and green

pigment, chlorophyl; the market value of green

potatoes is also low.

0030Avoiding damage to potatoes and dry, cool storage

are necessary to prevent bacterial and fungal attack.

Benzimidazole compounds are used to combat fungal

diseases. Efficient ventilation in any store is necessary

to eliminate excess moisture, which otherwise may

enhance rotting. (See Fungicides; Spoilage: Bacterial

Spoilage.)

See also: Acids: Natural Acids and Acidulants; Ascorbic

Acid: Physiology; Carbohydrates: Classification and

Properties; Requirements and Dietary Importance;

Carotenoids: Occurrence, Properties, and

Determination; Dietary Fiber: Physiological Effects;

Energy: Measurement of Food Energy; Enzymes:

Functions and Characteristics; Fungicides; Protein:

Chemistry; Requirements; Spoilage: Bacterial Spoilage;

Starch: Structure, Properties, and Determination;

Sources and Processing; Storage Stability: Mechanisms

of Degradation

tbl0009 Table 9 Sprout yield in naphthalene acetic acid (NAA) and vapor heat (VH)-treated tubers at the end of 3 months of storage

Storage temperature (



C) Sprout weight (fresh ^ g per100 tubers)

Control NAA-treated Control VH-treated

2 + 1 17.2 6.2

10 + 1 13.9 4.8

25 + 5 26.0 2.5 58.7 10.1

Adapted from Rama MV and Narasimham P (1985) Studies on the effect of various post-harvest treatments for controlling shriveling, sprouting and spoilage of

potatoes during storage. PhD thesis. India: University of Mysore.

tbl0010 Table 10 Physiological loss in weight (PLW), sprouting, and spoilage of potatoes during evaporative cooling storage for 30 days

Parameter Ambient storage (25^35



C) Evaporative cooling storage

Untreated NAA-treated Untreated NAA-treated

PLW (%) 2.6 2.4 1.1 0.9

Fresh sprout weight (g per 100 tubers) 86.1 21.6 70.1 17.1

Spoiled tubers (%) 4.5 0.0 0.0 0.0

Adapted from Rama MV and Narasimham P (1989) Studies on the effect of various post-harvest treatments for controlling shrveling, sprouting and spoilage of

potatoes during storage. PhD thesis. India: University of Mysore.

POTATOES AND RELATED CROPS/The Root Crop and its Uses 4665

Further Reading

Anonymous (1984) A Potato Store Run on Passive Evap-

orative Cooling. Technical bulletin no. 11, pp. 1–14.

Simla, India: Central Potato Research Institute.

Davis HV (1996) Recent developments in our knowledge

of potato transgenic biology. Potato Research 39: 411–427.

Harris PM (1978) The Potato Crop. London: Chapman and

Hall.

Jadhav SJ and Kadam SS (1998) In: Salunkhe DK and

Kadam SS (eds) Handbook of Vegetable Science and

Technology: Production, Composition, Storage and Pro-

cessing, pp. 11–69. New York: Marcel Dekker.

Pushkarnath (1976) Potato in Sub-Tropics. New Delhi:

Orient Longman.

Rama MV (1985) Studies on the effect of various post-

harvest treatments for controlling shriveling, sprouting

and spoilage of potatoes during storage. PhD thesis.

India: University of Mysore.

Rama MV and Narasimham P (1986) Heat treatments for

the control of sprouting of potatoes during storage.

Annals of Applied Biology 108: 597–603.

Rama MV and Narasimham P (1989) Control of potato

(Solanum tuberosum L. cv Kufri Jyoti) sprouting by

sodium naphthyl acetate during ambient storage. Jour-

nal of Food Science and Technology 26(2): 83–96.

Rama MV and Narasimham P (1991) Evaporative cooling

of potatoes in small naturally ventilated chambers. Jour-

nal of Food Science and Techniology 28(3): 145–148.

Rastovski A, Van Es A, Van Der Zaag DE et al. (1987)

Storage of Potatoes. Post Harvest Behaviour, Store

Design, Storage Practice, Handling. Wageningen, The

Netherlands: Center for Agricultural Publishing and

Documentation.

Rich AE (1983) Potato Diseases. New York: Academic Press.

Rodriguez De Sotillo D, Hadley M and Wolf-Hall C (1998)

Potato peel extract: a nonmutagenic antioxidant with

potential antimicrobial activity. Journal of Food Science

63(5): 907–909.

Shashirekha MN (1988) Studies on the extension of storage

life of seed potato tubers stored under different tempera-

ture conditions. PhD thesis. India: University of Mysore.

Singh G, Kapoor IPS and Kumar Pandey S (1997) Studies on

essential oils VII. Natural sprout inhibitors for potatoes.

Pesticide Research Journal 9(1): 121–124.

Smith O (1977) Potatoes, Production, Storing, Processing.

Westport, Connecticut: AVI Publishing.

Upadhya MD (1994) True potato seed; propagule for

potato production for the 21st century. In: Shekhawat

GS, Khurana P, Pandey SK and Chandla VK (eds)

Potato: Present and Future, pp. 15–22. Shimla, India:

Indian Potato Association.

Van Der Zaag DE (1990) Recent trends in development,

production and utilization of potato crop in the world.

Asian Potato Journal 1: 1–11.

Woolfe JA (1987) The Potato in the Human Diet.

Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Yamaguchi M (1983) World Vegetables: Principles,

Production and Nutritive Value, p. 415. Westport,

Connecticut: AVI Publishing.

Fruits of the Solanaceae

M V Rama and P Narasimham, Formerly of Central

Food Technological Research Institute, Mysore, India

Background

0001The family Solanaceae includes about 75 genera and

2000 species of herbs, shrubs, and small trees distrib-

uted in the tropical and temperate regions of the

world. Important vegetable crops such as tomato,

brinjal, pepper, tree tomato, and husk tomato are

included in this family. Potato and tobacco are also

from this family. This article reviews the geographical

distribution, morphology, anatomy, chemical com-

position, nutritive value, and uses of some solan-

aceous fruits.

Geographical Distribution, Morphology,

and Anatomy

0002The important fruits of the family solanaceae are

shown in Table 1. Tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum)

is the most popular and widely cultivated vegetable

and has been consumed by the inhabitants of Central

and South America since prehistoric times. It is con-

sidered to be a native of the Peruvian and Mexican

regions. It is an indispensable fruit today, grown all

over the world (outdoors in temperate regions and in

green houses in the colder regions), and constitutes

about 15% of the world total vegetable production

(Table 2). World production of tomato for processing

is over 20 million tonnes, and in the USA, it ranks

second to potato in dollar value, among all the other

vegetables grown. Major tomato-producing countries

tbl0001Table 1 Some important solanaceous fruits

Scientific name Common name

Lycopersicon esculentum Tomato

L. pimpinellifolium Redcurrant or grape tomato

Solanum melongena Eggplant, brinjal, berenjana,

aubergine, guinea squash

S. macrocarpon African eggplant

S. nigrum Garden huckleberry, wonderberry

S. muricatum Pepino, melon pear

S. quitoense Naranjillo, lulo

S. gilo Jilo

Capsicum annuam Bell pepper, sweet pepper

C. frutescens Pimiento, chili, aji,

hot pepper, bird chili

Physalis peruviana Cape gooseberry, uchida

P. ixocarpa Tomatillo, ground cherry

P. purinosa Husk tomato

Cyphomandra betacea Tree tomato, tamarillo

4666 POTATOES AND RELATED CROPS/Fruits of the Solanaceae

are China, USA, Spain, Italy, Turkey, and Russia. The

fruit is normally round, lobed or pear-shaped, and the

diameter ranges from 1 to 12cm. New cultivars

with differently shaped fruits have been developed

to suit mechanical harvesting and handling systems

(Figure 1). It is a two- to many-loculed berry with a

fleshy placenta and many small, kidney-shaped seeds,

covered with short, stiff hairs and a jelly-like paren-

chyma (Figure 2). The tough skin or pericarp thick-

ness varies with the cultivar.

000 3 The genus Lycopersicon includes red-fruited edible

species with carotenoid pigmentation (subgenus

Eulycopersicon), and green-fruited species with

anthocyanin pigmentation (subgenus Eriopersicon).

Lycopersicon esculentum and L. pimpinellifolium

are red-fruited cultivars, while L. pissisi, L. peruvia-

num, L. hirsutum, L. glandulosum, and L. cheesma-

nii are green-fruited. Varieties evolved on pure-line

selection, hybridization, and genetic engineering

techniques for market and processing needs are

also cultivated in many countries. The Flavr-savr

is currently a genetically engineered approved

tomato variety in the US market. Cultivars suited

for home, market, shipping, and processing are listed

in Table 3.

0004The edible Physalis species are grown widely in the

warmer parts of the world. The fruit of Physalis

purinosa (husk tomato) is round, yellowish, and

acidic-sweet. Physalis peruviana (cape gooseberry) is

a native of the Andes, and grows from Venezuela to

Chile; the fruit is a spherical or ellipsoidal, smooth

berry, measuring about 4cm long and 3 cm wide.

The skin color is greenish yellow. Physalis ixocarpa

(tomatillo or ground cherry) is of Mexican origin; the

fruit is a round, green or purplish berry, with a high

ascorbic acid content.

0005Cyphomandra betacea (tree tomato or tamarillo) is

a native of Peru and is also grown in India, Sri Lanka,

and New Zealand. The fruit is greenish or purple in

the early stages and turns reddish at maturity. It has a

musky acid taste and tomato-like flavor. The fruit

rind is rough with a disagreeable flavor. Several

species in the genus Solanum are prominent vegetable

crops. Solanum melongena (eggplant or aubergine) is

a popular and staple vegetable crop in Asia, account-

ing for 92% of the total world production; in Africa

abcde

fghij

fig00 01 Figure 1 Shapesoftomatocultivars.a,flat;b,oblate;c,square

round;d,round;e,pear;f,elongatedpear;g,egg;h,oxheart;

i,blockyelongated;j,blockyround.AdaptedfromGouldWA

(1992)TomatoProduction,ProcessingandTechnology,3rdedn.Bal-

timore,MD:CTI.

(a)(b)

fig0002Figure 2 Structureofthetomatofruit:(a)transversesection;

(b)longitudinalsection.(a)1,pericarp;2,outerwall;3,radial

wall;4,locule;5,seeds;6,gel;7,axilefleshycore;8,skin.(b)1,

stemscar;2,blossomendscar.

tbl00 02 Table 2 Worldproductionofmajorsolanaceousfruits(1000tonnes)

RegionsTomatoEggplantCapsicum

World 91 663 21 165 18 024

Africa 10 799 799 2 078

Asia 41 246 19 543 10 715

Europe 19 789 709 2 705

North Central America 13 423 106 2 191

South America 5 990 59 301

Oceania 416 33

Developing countries 56 930 19 852 14 323

Developed countries 34 733 1 313 3 701

Source:FoodandAgriculturalOrganizationStatisticalDatabase–Provisional1999ProductionandProductionIndicesDatawww.fao.org

World production of vegetable þmelon ¼622 428 1000 tonnes.

POTATOES AND RELATED CROPS/Fruits of the Solanaceae 4667

and Europe, its production is 3.7 and 3.3%, respect-

ively (Table 2). The leading country of its cultivation

is China, followed by India, Turkey, Japan, Indonesia,

and Philippines. It is an extensively grown perennial

crop in the tropics and an annual in the temperate

zones. The fruit can be round, globose, long, or pear-

shaped. Most cultivars have purple to blackish skin,

while some have a white–green or mottled green skin,

with white flesh; in the white–green types, the mature

fruit has yellow skin. There are regional preferences

for the color and shape of the fruit; purple, large,

more or less round fruits are preferred in North Amer-

ica. Wild eggplants with spiny and bitter fruits are

found in India; of the several improved Indian culti-

vars, black beauty, long black, round purple, Pusa

purple long, Pusa purple round, Pusa purple cluster,

long purple and hybrids such as Vijay, S-1, S-4, S-5,

and S-8 are popular. Solanum melongena has three

main varieties; see Table 4.

0006 The African eggplant (S. macrocarpon) is a peren-

nial crop grown in the Ivory Coast. The fruit resem-

bles the eggplant. Garden huckleberry (S. nigrum)is

native to North America and has a wide distribution

in temperate and tropical regions; the fruit is a berry

about 6 mm in diameter, the color being green when

unripe and red, yellow, or black when ripe. Jilo (S.

jilo) is a major crop of Nigeria and a minor crop in

Central and Southern Brazil. Immature green fruits

with a spherical to oval shape (of 4 cm in diameter

and 6 cm long) are harvested, and on ripening, the

fruit develops an organish red color.

0007Naranjillo or Lulo (S. quitoense) is native to Ecua-

dor and is cultivated in Ecuador, Peru, Colombia, and

some Central American countries. The fruit is spher-

ical, 3–5 cm in diameter, and with a yellow, rough

skin when ripe. The pulp containing many white

seeds is green and acidic in taste.

0008Pepino or melon pear (S. muricatum) is an ancient

cultivated crop of the Andes, chiefly grown along the

central coast of Peru and at elevations of 1000–

3000 m from Colombia to Bolivia. It is also cultivated

to a limited extent in northern Argentina, Chile, New

Zealand, and Australia. The fruit is long, ovoid, or

ellipsoidal, and the color varies from light green to

pale yellow.

0009Capsicum (hot, chili, bell, or sweet pepper) is the

second most important fruit of the Solanaceae, grown

as a vegetable and condiment crop in tropical and

subtropical regions of the world. The world produc-

tion of this pepper is shown in Table 2. There are five

major recognized cultivated species of Capsicum

(Table 5) and seven botanical varieties of C. annuum

(Table 6). The important species are Capsicum

annuam (annual with flowers borne singly in leaf

axils) and C. frutescens (perennial with flower clus-

ters in leaf axils). The bell pepper or sweet pepper (C.

annuum), which is either mildly pungent or nonpun-

gent, has a thick pericarp and is used in flavoring

vegetable preparations. The highly pungent fruit of

C. frutescens has a thin, smooth pericarp and is used

as a condiment. Paprika is a nonpungent type of

pepper with a thick pericarp, selectively bred for

color and flavor.

0010China, Korea, Indonesia, Sri Lanka, Pakistan,

Japan, Mexico, Ethiopia, Spain, Italy, and Hungary

are some of the principal chili-producing countries.

The world demand for chilies is increasing. The main

exporters of chili are India, China, Indonesia, Hun-

gary, Singapore, Malaysia, Mexico, and Japan. The

bell pepper, C. annuum var. grossum (syn. Simla

tbl0004 Table 4 Common cultivated varieties of Solanum melongena and their fruit characteristics

Variety Fruit characteristics

Var. esculentum (Wees) Large, pendent, ovoid, oblong berries, 5–30 cm long, shiny

Var. depressum (Baily) Small, pear-shaped fruits, purple in color, 10–13 cm long

Var. serpentium (Deeft) Slender, greatly elongated, 30 cm long, 2–5 cm in diameter, end-curled

Adapted from Lawande KE and Chavan JK (1998) Eggplant (brinjal), In: Salunkhe DK and Kadam SS (eds), Handbook of Vegetable Science and Technology

^ Production, Composition, Storage and Processing, pp. 225–244. New York: Marcel Dekker. Solanum melongena var. incarrum (Linn) is a nonedible variety.

tbl0003 Table 3 Tomato varieties and end uses

Cultivar suitability

Home use Shipping

Better Boy F

Burpees’ Big Boy F

Red Cherry Campbell 1327

Market Empire F

Earypark 707 Glamour

Empire F

Heinz 1350, 1439

Mountain price F

Jet Star F

Pik Red F

Jubilee

Traveler 76 Morton Hybrid F

Processing Pik Red F

Heinz 722, 2653 Rutgers 39

Roma VF Spring set F

VF 134-1-2 Supersonic F

UC 82, 204

Adapted from Madhavi DL and Salunke DK (1998) Tomato In: Salunkhe DK

and Kadam SS (eds), pp. Handbook of Vegetable Science and Technology ^

Production, Composition, Storage and Processing, pp. 171–201. New York:

Marcel Dekker.

4668 POTATOES AND RELATED CROPS/Fruits of the Solanaceae

mirch, sweet pepper, bullnose capsicum) is cultivated

widely in India, Central and South America, Bolivia,

Peru, Costa Rica, Mexico, Hong Kong, and almost all

European countries. Based on characteristics such as

fruit size, color, texture, flavor, pungency, and uses, a

13-group classification has been proposed for culti-

vars of this species (Table 7).

0011 The Capsicum fruit is a pod-like berry with a short,

thick peduncle, developing from a bi-carpellary ovary

with axile placentation. Many seeds are present in the

cavity between the placenta and fruit wall. The unripe

fruit is commonly green, but fruits with cream, green-

ish yellow, orange, purple, and purplish black colors

also exist. Ripe fruits are usually red, but sometimes

yellow or orange.

Chemical Composition and Nutritive Value

0012 There is considerable variation in the chemical com-

positionofthe fruitsofthisfamily (Tables8 and 9). The

stage of maturity, cultivar, environmental, and cultural

practices influences the chemical composition.

Tomato

0013Glucose and fructose are the principle sugars in tomato

(representing more than 60% of the solids) with small

amounts of sucrose. Ripe fruits also contain raffinose;

the glucose concentration increases with ripening.

Tomato being a climacteric fruit, ripening is associated

with increase in respiration and ethylene production:

these in turn are integrated with the disappearance of

starch, degradation of chlorophyll, synthesis of lyco-

pene, flavor components, and polygalacturonase.

The pectic constituents mainly control the texture and

firmness of the fruit. In the ripening process, the pre-

dominant protopectin in the green fruit decreases,

and the pectin increases, making the fruit soft. The

protein content is about 1.0% in ripe fruit, and all the

essential amino acids except tryptophan are present;

other amino acids identified are tyrosine, aspartic acid,

glutamic acid, serine, glysine, a-aminobutyric acid, and

pipecolic acid; glutamic and aspartic acids occur in

greater concentrations.

0014Citric acid is the principle organic acid of tomato

which gives the fruit its typical taste. Along with a

tbl0005 Table 5 Cultivated Capsicum species and their distribution

Species Synonyms Distribution

C. annuum L. C. purpureum Columbia to southern USA, thoughout Asia and America

C. grossum

C. c erasiformae

C. baccatum L. C. pendulum Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Columbia, Equador, Peru, Paraguay, etc.

C. microcarpum

C. angulosum

C. frutescens (Tabasco pepper) C. minimum Columbia, Costa Rica, Guatemala, Mexico, Puerto Rico, Venezuela

C. chinese L. C. lu teum Bolivia to Brazil, Costa Rica, Mexico, Nicaragua, West Indies

C. umbelicatum

C. sinense

C. pubescence C. eximium Bolivia to Columbia, Costa Rica, Guatemala, Honduras, Mexico

C. tovari

C. cardenasii

Adapted from Rajput JC and Parulekar YR (1998) Capsicum In: Salunkhe DK and Kadam SS (eds) Handbook of Vegetable Science and Technology ^

Production, Composition, Storage and Processing, pp. 203–224. New York: Marcel Dekker.

tbl0006 Table 6 Botanical varieties of C. annuum and their fruit characters

Variety Commonnames Fruit characteristics

Var. abbreviatum, Fingerh Wrinkled peppers Ovate wrinkled fruits, about 5 cm long or less

Var. accuminatum, Fingerh Linear, oblong, pungent, pointed fruits about 9 cm long

Var. cerasiformae (Miller) Irish Cherry peppers Globose, pungent fruits red, yellow, or purple in color, with

firm flesh and 1.2–2.5 cm in diameter

Var. conoides (Miller) Cone peppers (Tabasco type) Erect, conical, pungent fruit, about 3 cm long

Var. fasciculatum (Stuart) Irish Cluster peppers Clustered, erect, slender, very pungent fruits, about 7.5 cm long

Var. grossum (L.) Sendt. Sweet peppers, paprika Large inflated fruit with a basal depression, red or yellow thick

flesh with mild pungency

Var. longum (DC) Sendt. Long peppers Mostly dropping fruits with tapering apex

Adapted from Rajput JC and Parulekar YR (1998) Capsicum In: Salunkhe DK and Kadam SS (eds) Handbook of Vegetable Science and Technology ^

Production, Composition, Storage and Processing, pp. 203–224. New York: Marcel Dekker.

POTATOES AND RELATED CROPS/Fruits of the Solanaceae 4669

small amount of malic acid, traces of acetic, formic,

lactic, and succinic acids have also been detected. The

lipid fraction of the tomatoes is composed of trigly-

cerides, sterols, sterol esters, free fatty acids, and

hydrocarbons. The phenolics reported are caffeic,

ferulic, chlorogenic, and p-coumaric acids. The chief

coloring materials of tomato at the mature green

stage are chlorophyll a and b, while at the ripe

stage, carotene and lycopene contents dominate,

contributing 7 and 87%, respectively. The final

color of tomato depends upon the ratio of the carot-

ene and lycopene. The various volatile compounds in

ripe fruit are alcohols, aldehydes, carbonyls, and

sulfur compounds, contributing to the flavor quality.

0015Tomato is regarded as an essential protective food.

It is a rich source of ascorbic acid: On a fresh-weight

basis, the vitamin C content averages about 25 mg per

100 g, varying with the variety, maturity, and season.

tbl0007 Table 7 Bell pepper groups, fruit character, and uses

Group Cultivars Uses Fruit characteristics

Bell California wonder Fresh market, salads, pitza, meatloaf,

and canning

Large, nonpungent with thick

flesh (7–12 cm 5–10 cm)

Yellow wonder

Pimento Pimento select Fresh market, salads, soups, processed

meat, and canning

Large, nonpungent,

thick-walled

(5–10 cm 5–7 cm)

Squash or

cheese

Cheese, antibois

and gambo

Processing, canning, freezing, pickling,

salad, and culinary purposes

Small to large, thick-walled,

nonpungent, green or

yellow to red

(2.5–5 cm 5–10 cm)

Ancho Mild California, big jam,

New Mexican chili

Dried, powdered, and culinary purposes Large, heartshaped, thin

walled, less pungent fruits

(10–12 cm 5–7 cm)

Anahein chili California chili, paprika Sauces and canning, processed into

powder dehydrated pods

Slender, medium-thick flesh,

medium to dark green color

turning red, sweet to

moderate pungency

(12–15 cm 2–3 cm)

Cayenne For market, pickling, dry powder, sauces

culinary purposes

Irregular, wrinkled, highly

pungent fruits turning green

to red (12–22 1.5–6 cm)

Cuben Fresh market, salads, pickling, and frying Long, thin walled, irregular

fruits of mild pungency,

turning yellowish green to

red (10–20 cm 1.5–5 cm)

Jalapeno Jalapeno Fresh green pods, dried powder, canning, and

sauces

Elongated, round, cylindrical

shape, highly pungent,

thin-walled, red at maturity

(5–7 cm 2–5 cm)

Small hot Red chili, sontaka Dried powder and sauces Slender, medium- to

thick-walled, highly

pungent, turning red

(4–7 cm 1–2 cm)

Cherry Red cherry, large Pickling Small, spherical, pungent fruit

turning red (2–5 cm in

diameter)

Red cherry, small

Short wax Floraljam, caloro, cascabella Pickle, cooking, sauce, and processing Medium- to thick-walled,

tapering, turning yellow to

orange red

(5–7 cm 2–5 cm)

Long wax Hungarian yellow wax, sweet banana Fresh market, pickle, sauce, and canning Pointed or blunt fruits turn

yellow to red

(8–12 cm 1–4 cm)

Tabasco Green leaf Tabasco, Tabasco Vinegar, sauce, and pickles Slender, highly pungent fruits,

turning yellow to red

(2–5 cm 0.5 cm)

Adapted from Rajput JC and Parulekar YR (1998) Capsicum In: Salunkhe DK and Kadam SS (eds) Handbook of Vegetable Science and Technology ^

Production, Composition, Storage and Processing, pp. 203–224. New York: Marcel Dekker.

4670 POTATOES AND RELATED CROPS/Fruits of the Solanaceae

Research has shown that the inclusion of tomato in

the diet can prevent deficiencies of vitamins and min-

erals. One medium-size, raw tomato provides 47% of

the B vitamin, 33% of vitamin A, and 1% of the

energy of the daily dietary requirement of an average

person. The mineral content varies between 0.3 and

0.6%; apart from calcium, potassium, magnesium

and iron, the tomato contains zinc, boron, iodine,

cobalt, and aluminum in trace amounts.

0016 The tomato contains a glycoalkaloid, tomatine,

and traces of solanine. Narcotine is present in unripe

fruit. The tomatine content is lowest in the pink stage

of ripeness and increases slightly in the fully ripe

tomato.

Brinjal or Eggplant

0017 This contains about 4% carbohydrate, composed of

sucrose, glucose, and fructose. Brinjal protein has a

high biological value and contains amino acids such

as arginine, histidine, lysine, tryptophan, leucine,

isoleucine, and valine, although the protein is rela-

tively poor in lysine and tryptophan, isoleucine, and

methionine. Brinjal contains a higher percentage of

vitamins than many other vegetables. However, it is

not a rich source of vitamin B

. The physical charac-

teristics such as the shape, color, and presence of

spines on the calyx have also been found to influence

the composition; hence the green, white, and purple

varieties are often compared for chemical compos-

ition. Dark-purple-skinned varieties contain more

vitamins than those with white skins. The white cul-

tivar contains twice as much crude fiber as the purple

and green cultivars. The amino acid content is higher

in purple cultivars and lowest in the white. Purple

cultivars are poor in potassium and chloride content,

while green cultivars are rich in these minerals. The

polyphenol oxidase activity is highest in the purple

type, thus making the fruit turn dark faster when cut

surfaces are exposed to air. Variations in the activities

of other enzymes have been observed in differently

tbl0008 Table 8 Macronutrient content (per 100-g edible portion) of some solanaceous fruits

Crop Energy (J) Water (g) Protein (g) Fat (g) Carbohydrates (g)

Tomato (green) 97 93.0 1.9 0.1 3.6

Tomato (ripe) 84 93.8 1.2 0.3 4.2

Eggplant 109 92.0 1.6 0.3 4.0

Chili pepper 487 65.4 6.3 1.4 24.8

Bell pepper 109 92.0 1.3 0.2 6.0

Tree tomato 202 85.9 1.5 0.3 11.3

Naranjillo 118 92.0 0.7 0.1 6.8

Tomatillo 134 92.0 0.4 1.0 6.3

Cape gooseberry 223 83.0 1.8 0.2 11.1

Husk tomato 105 92.0 0.7 0.6 5.8

Pepino 134 92.0 0.4 1.0 6.3

From FAO (1972) Food CompositionTable for Use in East Asia. Rome: Food and Agriculture Organization; Gopalan C, Ramasastri BV and Balasubramanian

SC (1993) Nutritive Value of Indian Foods. Hyderabad, India: Indian Council of Medical Research; Yamaguchi M (1983) World Vegetables, Principles,

Production and Nutritive Value, pp. 291–310. Westport, CT: AVI.

tbl0009 Table 9 Vitamin and mineral content (per 100-g edible portion) of some solanaceous fruits

Crop Vitamin (mg)

Mineral (mg)

A(IU) B

Nicotinic acid C Calcium Iron Magnesium Phosphorus

Tomato (green) 320 0.07 0.01 0.4 31 20 1.8 15 36

Tomato (ripe) 385 0.06 0.04 0.6 23 7 0.6 12 30

Eggplant 124 0.08 0.07 0.7 6 22 0.9 16 37

Chili pepper 576 0.37 0.51 2.5 96 86 3.6 24 120

Bell pepper 530 0.07 0.08 0.8 103 12 0.9 13 34

Tree tomato 0.04 0.04 1.4 17 13 0.8 34 24

Naranjillo 170 0.06 0.04 1.5 65 8 0.4 14

Tomatillo 80 0.05 0.05 2.1 2 7 0.4 23 40

Cape gooseberry 2380 0.05 0.05 0.1 180 10 2.0 31 67

Husk tomato 380 0.05 0.02 2.1 0.2 7 0.4 23 40

Pepino 200 0.08 0.04 0.5 32 18 0.8 14

Vitamin A content is given in IU.

From FAO (1972) Food Composition Table for Use in East Asia Rome: Food and Agriculture Organization; Gopalan C, Ramasastri BV and Balasubramanian

SC (1993) Nutritive Value of Indian Foods. Hyderabad, India: Indian Council of Medical Research; Yamaguchi M (1983) World Vegetables, Principles,

Production and Nutritive Value, pp. 291–310. Westport, CT: AVI.

POTATOES AND RELATED CROPS/Fruits of the Solanaceae 4671

colored fruits. The main pigment of the fruit is an

anthocyanine, nasunin; lycopene and lycoxanthin are

also present. The seed oil is reported to be rich in

linoleic acid.

0018 The fruit peel contains a bitter principle, solaso-

nine. The phenolic compounds present in the fruit are

chlorogenic acid, neochlorogenic acid, scopoletin,

and caffeic acid; a trace amount of hydrocyanic acid

is also present. Higher concentrations of glycoalka-

loids (20 mg per 100 g fresh weight) result in a bitter

taste and off-flavor.

Pepper

0019 Pepper is a good source of vitamins A and C, and is

superior to tomato and eggplant in this respect. The

vitamin C content varies with the variety and matur-

ity stage (160–210 mg in green chilies and 113–

160 mg in red ripe fruits). The pungent principle of

chili is capsaicin (a crystalline, colorless compound),

which is concentrated more in the placenta (90%)

that connects the seeds with pericarp. A highly irri-

tating vapor is liberated on heating capsaicin. Yellow

chilies are more suitable for capsaicin extraction.

An African chili variety, ‘Mombusa,’ is known for

its high capsaicin content. The green fruits contain

chlorophyll a and b. The coloring matter of ripe

fruit includes capsanthin, capsorubin, zeacanthin,

cryptoxanthin, and a- and b-carotene.

Other Solanaceous Fruits

0020 Husk tomato, tomatillo, and cape gooseberry are also

important sources of vitamins and minerals (Table 9).

Tree tomato contains substantial amounts of carbo-

hydrates and minerals. It is rich in vitamin C and is

also a good source of provitamin A.

Handling and Storage

Tomato

0021 Tomato fruits are harvested at different stages of

maturity (Table 10), depending upon the use, and

are often harvested at the mature green stage for the

market and ripened either in transit or during storage.

For canning or juice extraction, the fruit is harvested

at the ripe stage. The postharvest losses in tomato

may range from 5 to 50%; the highest loss is attribut-

able to mechanical damage, and other causes may be

physiological disorder, diseases, and heat and chilling

injury.

0022Packing-house operations include cleaning,

grading, waxing, wrapping, and packing. Fruits are

transported to the market in bamboo baskets, corru-

gated board cartons, or wooden boxes. In general, the

optimum storage temperature and relative humidity

(RH) for tomato storage is 12



C and 86–95%. How-

ever, depending upon the stage of fruit maturity at

harvest, storage conditions vary. Mature green toma-

toes can be stored at 13–18



C and 85–90% RH for

3–4 weeks as the fruits ripen at this temperature

without chilling injury. Holding them below 10



for more than 24 h should be avoided to overcome

the symptoms of chilling injury. However, storing

green fruits above 18



C results in early ripening,

which leads to rapid deterioration in the quality of

the fruits, while at about 30



C, the red pigment for-

mation is hindered, and the ripe fruit develops an

orange to yellow color. Fruits at the breaker stage

are less sensitive to chilling injury than immature

green fruits. Ripe tomatoes can be preserved for 7–

10 days at 3–5



C and 85–90% RH. Fully ripened

fruits are held between 1.7 and 4.4



C until they are

ready for use. Prolonged storage of fully ripe tomato

causes softening and loss of color of the fruits.

0023Controlled-atmosphere and hypobaric storage can

also prolong the shelf-life of the tomato. The pack-

aging of tomatoes in polyethylene bags provides a

modified atmosphere, which extends the shelf-life.

Postharvest treatment with gibberellic acid markedly

retards ripening, while 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic

acid, naphthalene acetic acid, and ethylene hasten

ripening, and this facilitates the marketing of mature

green tomatoes. Ethephon, an ethylene-releasing

compound, has been used commercially to accelerate

Table 10 Maturity stages of tomato

Stage Characteristics

Immature green Seeds and jelly-like substance surrounding the seeds not yet formed

Mature green Fully grown fruit shows a brownish ring on the stem scar, and blossom end turns yellowish green; seeds

are surrounded by a jelly-like substance

Turning (breaker stage) One-quarter of the surface at blossom end appears pink

Pink Three-quarters of the surface appears pink

Hard ripe Nearly all red or pink, but flesh is firm

Over-ripe Fully red and soft

Adapted from Gould WA (1992) To m a t o Pr o d u c t i on, P r o c e s sin g and Te c h n olo g y , 3rd edn. Baltimore, MD: CTI.

4672 POTATOES AND RELATED CROPS/Fruits of the Solanaceae

ripening. Chemicals such as captan, dithane, and

thiram have the greatest potential as fungicidal treat-

ments on tomatoes.

Brinjal

0024 Brinjal is a heavy vegetable and requires care in hand-

ling, even though it is not as perishable like the

tomato. The fruit becomes edible from the time it

attains one-third or the full growth size. Over-mature

fruits are dull, seedy, and fibrous, sometimes tasting

bitter. After harvest, the graded fruits are packed in

special crates or bushel baskets. In tropical countries,

chilling injury and certain pests and diseases cause

high losses of eggplants. Temperatures below 10



cause chilling injury, the symptoms of which are pit-

ting, surface bronzing, and browning of the seeds and

pulp. Fruit rot and anthracnose caused by Phomopsis

parasitica and Gleosporium melongense, respectively,

are the most serious postharvest diseases. Hot water

(50



C) and a low concentration of dithiocarbamate

provide good disease control. The fruit can be stored

successfully for 2–3 weeks at 10.0–12.8



C and 92%

RH. Controlled-atmosphere storage has not been

found to be beneficial in extending the storage life

of the eggplant. Small fruits are not well suited for

long-term storage, and chilling injury is more

common in tender fruits. Prepackaging of brinjal in

adequately ventilated polyethylene bags (100-gauge)

increases the shelf-life, and treating brinjal with a

fungicidal wax emulsion extends the shelf-life by

30–40%.

Pepper

0025 Chili, used as a raw vegetable, is harvested green, but

for processing, only red ripe chilies are harvested. The

important postharvest losses in chili are weight loss,

chilling injury, and microbial spoilage. At the recom-

mended storage conditions of 7.2



C and 85–90%

RH, green peppers can be stored for 2–3 weeks, and

ripe peppers at 5.6–7.2



Cand90–95% RH can be

stored for about 2 weeks. Storage in paper bags rather

than in polyethylene bags can prolong the shelf-life of

hot peppers. Bell peppers are harvested when they

attain their full size and are still green. Storage

below 7



C results in chilling injury and, subse-

quently, Alternaria rot. Controlled-atmosphere stor-

age at various temperatures has been recommended

to extend the shelf-life of bell peppers, while hypoba-

ric storage is not beneficial as it greatly increases

the weight loss. Fruits are commonly wax-coated to

reduce the moisture loss before shipment. Ripe

fruit can be preserved at room temperature (20



for only a week, but for 12–14 weeks at 3–4



after dipping in hot water at 50



C for 10 min.

A common storage disease is bacterial decay by Erwi-

nia carotovora.

Uses of Solanaceous Fruits

0026Fresh, ripe tomato fruits are refreshing and appetiz-

ing, and are consumed raw in salads or after cooking.

Unripe fruits are usually cooked and eaten. Large

quantities are processed in southern European coun-

tries and in California. Tomatoes can be processed

into juice, pure

e, paste, ketchup, sauce, soup, and

powder. Special varieties have been evolved to meet

these processing requirements. The tomato cultivars

for juice should have a bright color, rich flavor, and

high total acidity. They should also be juicy and not

meaty. Tomatine, a glycoalkaloid present in the fruit,

yields, on hydrolysis, tomatidine, which can be trans-

formed into hormones such as progesterone and tes-

tosterone. The oil of tomato seeds is used in the soap

and paint industry. The pressed cake can be used as a

feed for livestock or a fertilizer. Tomato also has

several medicinal applications and is used in the prep-

aration of traditional medicine in Japan, Greece, and

Peru. The hot water extract of dried fruits has been

used in the treatment of ulcer wounds and burns, and

tomato has been reported to reduce the risk of pros-

trate and digestive tract cancers.

0027Brinjal is valued more as a vegetable during the

autumn when other vegetables are scarce. It is a fairly

good source of calcium, iron, phosphorus, and vita-

min B. Sun-dried or hot-air-dried eggplant powder

with good organoleptic and nutritive qualities has

been prepared. Treatment with brinjal is recom-

mended in liver complaints. It has been reported to

stimulate the intrahepatic metabolism of cholesterol

and produce a marked drop in blood cholesterol level.

0028The garden huckleberry (S. nigrum) leaf has great

medicinal value. The tender leaves are boiled like

spinach and eaten in many parts of India. Ripe fruits

are used as a substitute for raisins in plum puddings.

The berry is considered to possess tonic, diuretic, and

cathartic properties, and is useful in the treatment of

heart disease. The berries also find use as a domestic

remedy for fever, diarrhea, ulcers, and eye problems.

0029Peppers are used green, or after ripening, in a great

variety of ways. Chilies, when taken with food,

stimulate the taste buds and increase the flow of

saliva. The commercial red pepper(s) consists of the

fruits of a small, pungent variety, which is dried and

ground to a fine powder. Dry chili powder and green

chilies are commonly used in various culinary prepar-

ations and in the preparation of sauces, soup,

ketchup, and salads. Pepper sauce, prepared in a var-

iety of ways, consists of the fruit of pungent varieties

preserved in brine or strong vinegar. Both red and

POTATOES AND RELATED CROPS/Fruits of the Solanaceae 4673

green bell peppers are sold frozen and are also

canned, along with other vegetables. Tabasco sauce

is prepared from the juice of a pungent variety, ex-

pressed by applying pressure. Paprika, a Hungarian

condiment, is made from fruit ground after removing

the seeds. Pepper is used in pickles of various kinds.

The sweet varieties are stuffed and baked. Capsicum

preparations are used as a counterirritant in neuralgia

and rheumatic disorders. Green chilies are a good

source of l-asparaginase, which has an antitumor

effect and is used in the treatment of acute lympho-

cytic leukemia.

0030 The oleoresins have varying color properties

and pungency, are prepared from the dried fruits of

Capsicum, and are used in the pharmaceutical, food,

and cosmetic industries. The three types of oleoresins

are oleoresin capsicum, oleoresin red pepper, and

oleoresin paprika; oleoresin capsicum is used in

making pain-balms and vaporubs. The nonpungent

type of oleoresin is chiefly used as a coloring agent,

while the pungent type is used for flavoring and

coloring snack foods. Chili seed cake, a byproduct

of seed oil, has a protein content of 27–29% and

can be used as a fertilizer or as an animal feed. Chili

color is a new product, which can replace artificial

food colors.

0031 The melon pear fruit is cooked and eaten when

immature, while the mature fruit has a fleshy pulp

with an aroma and flavor similar to those the cucum-

ber. Lulo is cultivated mainly for the juice, especially

in Ecuador, Peru, Columbia, and some Central

American countries. The young shoots of jilo are

finely chopped and used in soups in Nigeria. Toma-

tillo can be used to make chili sauce and is used for

dressing meats in Mexico. The ground cherry, which

is acidic-sweet, is used for preserves and sometimes

for sauces, and the Cape gooseberry is eaten raw or

preserved as a pickle.

See also: Peppers and Chillies; Potatoes and Related

Crops: The Root Crop and its Uses; Processing Potato

Tubers; Tomatoes