Caballero B. (ed.) Encyclopaedia of Food Science, Food Technology and Nutrition. Ten-Volume Set

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since patients can, through multiple infections, use up

their sites for central vascular access. Infection can be

limited to the device, spread to the bloodstream, and/

or involve local tissue either at the exit site or along

the tunnel. Definitive treatment of catheter-related

infection usually involves removal of the device. A

variety of methods have been tried to reduce the risk

of infection in patients dependent upon PN. All

patients are instructed to use scrupulous sterile tech-

niques when accessing their device. The device should

be accessed only to deliver specialized nutritional

support and should not be used for the infusion of

other products or blood draws. Some access devices

are impregnated with antibiotics or bacteriostatic

agents. An antibiotic solution lock after the use of

a catheter can reduce catheter sepsis and is used

in patients with frequent infection. To remove the

biofilm on the internal surface of the catheter which

allows invading bacteria to grow and limits antibiotic

sterilization – intermittant thrombolytics can be used

likewise endoluminal brushes. Endoluminal brushes

have been used both to identify infected lines and to

clear catheters.

0033Bleeding Bleeding occurs either locally because of

bleeding from a leaking catheter or from a systemic

tbl0004 Table 4 Daily parenteral requirements of essential fatty acids,

minerals, and vitamins

Nutrient Daily parenteralrequirement

for anadult

Essential fatty acids, % kcal 2–4

Calcium, g (meq) 0.2–0.4 (10–20)

Phosphorus, g 0.4–0.8

Potassium, g (meq) 3–4 (75–100)

Sodium, g (meq) 1–3 (45–130)

Chloride, g (meq) 3–4 (85–120)

Magnesium, g (meq) 0.2–0.3 (15–25)

Iron, mg 1–2

Zinc, mg 3–12

Copper, mg 0.3–0.5

Iodine, mg 0.15

Manganese, mg 2–5

Chromium, mg 15–30

Molybdenum, mg 20–120

Selenium, mg 50–100

Ascorbic acid, mg 100

Thiamin, mg 3

Riboflavin, mg 3.6

Niacin, mg 40

Biotin, mg60

Pantothenic acid, mg 15

Pyridoxine, mg 4

Folic acid, mg400

Cobalamin, mg5

Vitamin A, IU 3300

Vitamin D, IU 200

Vitamin E, mg 10

Vitamin K, mg200

In addition to the requirement for chloride anions, there is a parenteral

requirement for bicarbonate equivalents to protect the acid–base balance.

These are provided as 90 mmol or more of acetate or lactate per day

because of potential precipitation of bicarbonate with ingredients such as

calcium.

From Howard L (1998) Parenteral and enteral nutrition. In: Fauci AS,

Braunwald E, Isselbacher KJ and Wilson JD (eds) Harrison’s Principles of

Internal Medicine, 14th edn., chapter 78, figure 78-6, p. 477. New York:

McGraw-Hill.

tbl0005Table 5 Compatibilities of selected drugs in parenteral

nutrition solutions

Drugs compatible with PN solutions

Dextrose/amino acids Total nutrient admixtures

Albumin Albumin

Cimetidine Cimetidine

Famotidine Famotidine

Folic acid Heparin

Heparin Regular human insulin

Hydrochloric acid Metoclopramide

Regular human insulin Phytonadione

Iron dextran Ranitidine

Metoclopramide

Phytonadione

Ranitidine

Drugsincompatible with PN solutions

Dextrose/amino acids Total nutrient admixtures

Amphotericin B Amphotericin B

Ampicillin Hydrochloric acid

Metronidazole (with NaHCO

) Iron dextran

Phenytoin Methyldopa

Phenytoin

Drugsincompatible with PN solutions withY-site administration

Acyclovir

Amphotericin B

Cefazolin

Ciprofloxacin

Cisplatin

Cyclosporine

Cytarabine

Doxorubicin

Fluorouracil

Furosemide

Ganciclovir

Methotrexate

Metoclopramide

Midazolam

Minocycline

Mitoxantrone

Potassium phosphate

Promethazine

Bicarbonate salts

Total nutrient admixture or ‘3 in 1’ refers to a solution containing

dextrose, amino acids, and fat.

From ME Shils and RO Brown (1999) Parenteral nutrition. In: Shils ME,

Olson JA, Shike M and Ross AC (eds) Modern Nutrition in Health and

Disease, 9th edn, chapter 101, table 101.13, p. 1688. Philadelphia, PA:

Lippincott, Williams & Wilkins.

PARENTERAL NUTRITION 4365

coagulopathy. Most catheter leaks can be addressed

by clamping or crimping the catheter proximal to the

leak and then having the catheter repaired. Subcuta-

neous bleeding around a port usually responds to

pressure.

0034 Air embolism Air embolism is a feared complica-

tion of central venous access. Patients need to be

reassured that dangerous volumes of air are large

and rarely happen through an access device. If con-

cern for this complication is real, and the amount of

air delivered is unknown, patients crimp off their

catheter and lie flat on their left side so that air is

trapped in the right auricle or ventricle and does not

pass on into the pulmonary artery and the lungs

where the ‘bubble’ will disrupt gas exchange. Over

20 min, even large trapped bubbles will dissolve.

0035 Phlebitis Phlebitis is a relatively common complica-

tion with peripherally inserted access devices. Inflam-

mation of the small vessel, which is initially entered,

can result in local pain, swelling, erythema, and heat.

There may or may not be associated cellulitis. The

internal surface of the catheter usually remains sterile.

If conservative local therapies are insufficient to pro-

vide relief, the line should be removed, since phlebitis

can progress to thrombosis and more serious compli-

cations.

0036 Migration After initial placement, catheters can mi-

grate in the wrong directions. For example, a line

placed via the subclavian vein can end up in the

internal jugular. The peripherally inserted central

catheters can propagate into the heart from the super-

ior vena cava or right atrium. The resulting endocar-

dial irritation can result in palpitations, skipped

beats, and, rarely, more serious arrhythmia. When

fluoroscopy is available at the time of the placement,

these complications are easily correctable. It is useful

to note at the time of insertion just how much of a

CVL or PICC remains externalized.

0037 Crimping and breakage If infusion becomes

difficult, and the pump signals blockage, the first

consideration should be the site of central access.

Crimping of the catheter is common with peripherally

inserted access introduced through the veins of the

antecubital fossa. Repeated flexion and extension at

the elbow can introduce a kink in the catheter itself

and result in breakage. The diagnosis of catheter

breakage is straightforward, since it usually occurs

as separation of the catheter from the external hub

or as a simple breach in the external catheter wall.

Rarely is a catheter sheared off internally. None the

less, a central catheter should never be withdrawn

with any amount of force, as there have been inci-

dences of catheter embolization requiring extraction

under fluoroscopy.

0038Blockage Catheters can become blocked by throm-

bus, built-up fibrin and platelet deposits, crystals of

infused minerals or drugs, or by lipid precipitate from

intravenous fat solutions. Vigorous and frequent

flushing with heparinized saline and the use of hep-

arin-impregnated catheters has been useful in redu-

cing the frequency of thrombotic luminal obstruction.

Accumulation of fibrinous material on the outer sur-

face of the catheter tip is relatively common and can

produce a ball valve effect, allowing infusion but

preventing blood withdrawal. Fluoroscopic confirm-

ation of catheter position and clots is useful. Current

treatment for thrombus or fibrin is 0.5–1 mg of tissue

plasminogen activator. Crystalline material may be

dissolved by 0.1 N HCL and lipid by small amounts

of alcohol. Checking for blood return from access

devices is discouraged because the process of drawing

blood into the catheter promotes the process of fibrin

and platelet precipitation and contributes to higher

rates of intraluminal catheter obstruction and infec-

tion, shortening the usable life of the devices. Cath-

eter thrombosis is frequently associated with catheter

infection.

Underfeeding

0039Ideally, the amount of specialized nutritional support

delivered to the patient is sufficient to meet the needs

of the patient. Because the process of determining

those needs is imperfect, it is likely that either too

much or too little support will be delivered. Because

the complications associated with overfeeding can be

dramatic, it is now preferred to err on the side of

underfeeding, especially in the patient who is under

stress. In order to optimize the patient’s response to

specialized nutritional support, prospectively deter-

mined goals should be used to gauge the success of

therapy. The clinician should assess the patient’s

wound healing, strength to wean from a respirator,

cough effectively, and mobility. If such an evaluation

is neglected, the patient may inadvertently be denied

the full benefit of parenteral support.

Overfeeding

0040Overfeeding is the provision of one or more of the

nutrient components of parenteral nutrition in an

amount or at a rate that exceeds the physiologic

utilization and excretion of the nutrient.

0041Hyperglycemia Excessive provision of carbohy-

drate can occur in both diabetic and nondiabetic

patients and is more likely to occur in those who are

4366 PARENTERAL NUTRITION

critically ill. Hyperglycemia should be treated by re-

ducing the carbohydrate calories. The use of insulin is

only appropriate in patients known to be insulino-

penic.

0042 Fluid overload Fluid overload is possible in patients

who have reduced cardiac reserves and in persons

with healthy hearts whose PN volume is added to an

already generous regimen of crystalloid or colloid. It

is essential to consider the total volume of other fluids

delivered when determining a volume for PN.

0043 Fatty liver Delivery of carbohydrate or fat calories

in excess of that which can be used by the patient

creates hepatic steatosis. In the case of a patient with

impaired liver function, this can occur more rapidly.

Chronic hepatic steatosis leads to cholestasis and,

occasionally, irreversible fibrosis and cirrhosis. This

appears to occur more readily in children than adults.

0044 Refeeding syndrome This classic complication of

starvation can occur after prolonged starvation from

any cause; it happens when the nutrient supply is

restored too rapidly. The underfed patient has de-

pleted stores of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) with

normal or low circulating levels of potassium, phos-

phorus, and magnesium. Once metabolism is re-

stored, phosphate is drawn into cells to be coupled

to adenosine monophosphate (AMP) and adenosine

diphosphate (ADP). Magnesium is also drawn into

cells to act as a cofactor for a number of cellular

processes, for example, the conjugation of phosphate

to ADP and the Na–K ATPase. Finally, potassium is

drawn into cells to participate in the vigorous metab-

olism of newly supplied energetic compounds. This

leads to depleted serum magnesium, potassium, and

phosphate. This transcellular shift can have dire

consequences, as a result of altered membrane con-

duction, resulting in arrhythmia, edema, and heart

failure.

Allergic Reactions

0045 Reactions to any component used in the delivery of

PN are possible. Allergic reactions to latex are well

known. Autoimmune reactions to heparin are also

recognized, and even the small amount present in

the lumen of an impregnated catheter is sufficient to

trigger the heparin-induced thrombotic thrombocyto-

penia syndrome. Reactions to the actual components

of the nutrient formulation are unusual.

Withdrawal of Support

0046 Once PN is begun in a patient, when does one

stop? There are three situations in which withdrawal

of therapy is appropriate: first, when the patient

can wean from PN to more physiologic EN; second,

when desired by the patient; and third, when further

treatment is futile, and the risks clearly outweigh

the benefits. Assessing PN nutrition repletion and

transposing to use of the GI tract is an important

clinical step that often has to happen gradually.

Every patient must agree to both initiation and

stopping PN therapy. Occasionally, after experien-

cing nutritional rescue by PN, the patient or family

desire continuation of therapy and are fearful of

the consequences of weaning off. When continued

nutritional support is felt to contribute nothing to

the patient’s quality of life or prognosis, it should

be withdrawn like any other futile therapy. This

process is ethically straightforward but emotion-

ally charged and medicolegally complicated. The

best way to avoid these difficult situations is to

avoid PN in every case where its use is not clearly

indicated, and the course of therapy is not prospect-

ively defined.

See also: Bioavailability of Nutrients; Body

Composition; Burns Patients – Nutritional

Management; Cancer: Diet in Cancer Treatment;

Children: Nutritional Requirements; Dehydration;

Diarrheal (Diarrhoeal) Diseases; Dietary Reference

Values; Dietary Requirements of Adults; Electrolytes:

Analysis; Enteral Nutrition; HIV Disease and Nutrition;

Infants: Nutritional Requirements; Malnutrition: The

Problem of Malnutrition; Minerals – Dietary Importance;

Nutritional Assessment: Importance of Measuring

Nutritional Status; Stress and Nutrition; Vitamins:

Determination; Water: Structures, Properties, and

Determination

Further Reading

Ashley C and Howard L (2001) Evidence base for special-

ized nutritional support. Nutrition Reviews 58: 282–

289.

Brooks S and Kearns P (1996) Enteral and parenteral nutri-

tion. In: Ziegler EE and Filer LJ (eds) Present Knowledge

in Nutrition, 7th edn. pp. 530–539. Washington, DC:

ILSI Press.

Dresser RS and Boisaubin EV (1985) Ethics law and nutri-

tional support. Archives of Internal Medicine 145: 122–

124.

Gonzalez-Huix F, Fernandez-Banares F, Esteve-Comas M

et al. (1993) Enteral versus parenteral nutrition as

adjunct therapy in acute ulcerative colitis. American

Journal of Gastroenterology 88: 227–232.

Howard L (1998) Parenteral and enteral nutrition therapy.

In: Fauci AS, Braunwald E, Isselbacher KJ and Wilson

JD (eds) Harrison’s Principles of Internal Medicine, 14th

edn. pp. 472–480. New York: McGraw-Hill.

Howard L, Ament M, Fleming CR et al. (1995) Current use

and clinical outcome of home parenteral and enteral

PARENTERAL NUTRITION 4367

nutrition therapies in the United States. Gastroenter-

ology 109: 355–365.

Klein S, Kinney J, Jeejeebhoy et al. (1997) Nutrition support

in clinical practice: Review of published data and recom-

mendations for future research directions. Journal of

Parenteral and Enteral Nutrition 21: 133–156.

Klein S and Koretz RL (1994) Nutrition support in patients

with cancer: What do the data really show? Nutr Clin

Pract 9: 91–100.

Lipman TO (1998) Grains or veins: Is enteral nutrition

really better than parenteral nutrition? A look at the

evidence. JPEN 22: 167–182.

Semrad CE (2000) Parenteral nutrition. Clinical Perspec-

tives in Gastroenterology Nov/Dec: 307–314.

Shils ME and Brown RO (1999) Parenteral Nutrition.

In: Shils ME, Olson JA, Shike M and Ross AC

(eds) Modern Nutrition in Health and Disease, 9th

edn. pp. 1657–1688. Philadelphia, PA: Lippincott,

Williams & Wilkins.

Viall CD (2000) Home parenteral nutrition: Finances.

In: Rombeau JL and Rolandelli RH (eds) Clinical

Nutrition: Parenteral Nutrition, 3rd edn. pp. 512–528.

New York: WB Saunders.

PASSION FRUITS

D B Rodriguez-Amaya, Universidade Estadual de

Campinas, Campinas, SP, Brazil

Introduction

0001 Because of the intense, fragrant, and distinctive

aroma and flavor, passion fruit has been the object

of investigations and is in increasing demand world-

wide. Native to Brazil, this fruit owes its name to the

delicate and beautiful flowers, some features of which

the early Christian missionaries to South America

found symbolic of the Passion of Christ.

Species and Cultivars

0002 Passion fruit belongs to the Passifloraceae family,

which consists of 12 genera and over 500 species,

widely distributed in tropical America, Asia, and

Africa. Passiflora, the principal genus, has approxi-

mately 400 known species, about 50–60 of which

bear edible fruits, but only a few are of any commer-

cial importance. Many are known only in native

markets in South and Central America and the West

Indies. Commercial production of passion fruit is

based on the purple species Passiflora edulis Sims

and the yellow form Passiflora edulis f. flavicarpa

Degener. It is still in question whether the yellow

passion fruit is a mutant of the purple P. edulis or its

hybrid with other species. These two forms are

commonly called granadilla, parcha, or parchita in

Spanish, maracuja in Portuguese, and lilikoi in

Hawaiian.

0003 Aside from the skin color, the purple and yellow

passion fruits differ in horticultural performance and

fruit properties. The purple species is more resistant

to cold injury, is less acid, and is considered superior

in aroma and flavor. The yellow form is faster grow-

ing, has a greater resistance to soil fungi, has more

vigorous vines, bears crops over longer periods, and

has a greater yield of fruit and pulp, larger fruits, and

more acid juice.

0004P. quadrangularis L. or ‘giant granadilla,’ widely

distributed in the tropics, is the most cultivated species

after P. edulis in tropical America. It bears the largest

fruits, which are more elongated, up to 25 cm long,

and fleshy instead of hollow. The seeds are much

larger, brownish, and flattened. The rind is not so

hard as in the purple and yellow passion fruits. The

juice content is much lower and is somewhat inferior

in flavor and color. The pulp can be eaten like a

melon, with or without the addition of sugar, or

cooked with milk. When green, this fruit can be

used as a vegetable as green papaya.

0005P. ligularis Juss, ‘sweet granadilla’ or ‘water

lemon,’ is cultivated in the mountains of Mexico

and Central America. The fruit is mostly eaten out

of hand or used in drinks or icecream. Its translucent

white pulp is almost a liquid, acid with sweet aroma.

The peel is resistant so the fruit can be transported

well, without being damaged. Colombia, where this

species is cultivated in the Western Cordillera, exports

this fruit to Europe.

0006P. mollissima, ‘banana passion fruit’ or ‘curuba,’

grows widely in the Andes and is distributed from

Venezuela and Colombia to Peru and Bolivia. The

flavor is more astringent and less acid than P. edulis.

The sieved pulp is mixed with milk and sugar and

served as a drink. It is also used in marmalades and

desserts and for flavoring icecream

0007P. maliformis L. is known as ‘sweet cup’ in the West

Indies, ‘chulupa’ in Colombia, and ‘granadilla de

hueso’ in Ecuador. It is a little-known species but

4368 PASSION FRUITS

may have a good future because of its excellent aroma

and flavor.

Botany and Horticulture

0008 The purple passion fruit crops best at higher altitudes

in the tropics. It is produced commercially in Austra-

lia, South Africa, Kenya, Papua-New Guinea, New

Zealand, Sri Lanka, and India. The yellow form

thrives in humid tropical lowlands. It is the passion

fruit most cultivated in Brazil, Peru, Venezuela,

Hawaii, and Fiji. Both wild and cultivated passion

fruits are also found in Bolivia, Malaysia, Indonesian,

Taiwan, and the Philippines. Production of passion

fruit is also possible in frost-free areas in the temper-

ate zone, although fruiting is more limited than in the

tropical regions.

0009 The plant is a woody, perennial vine that bears a

large number of purple or yellow, oval or round fruits

4–7.5 cm in diameter. It climbs with the aid of tendrils

that spring from the same axils as the flowers. The

alternate evergreen leaves, deeply three-lobed when

mature, are finely toothed, 7.5–20 cm long, deep

green and glossy above, paler and dull beneath, and,

like the young stems and the tendrils, tinged with red

or purple, especially in the yellow form. A single,

fragrant flower, 5–7.5 cm in diameter, is borne at

each node on the new growth. Clasped by three

green leaf-like bracts, it consists of five greenish

white sepals; five white petals; a fringed corona of

straight white-tipped rays, vivid purple at the base;

five stamens with large anthers; the ovary; a promin-

ent, centrally located, triple-branched style and three

stigmas. The stigmas are at the apex of the androgi-

nophore, the anthers situated below them, making

self-pollination difficult.

0010 The P. edulis Sims bears fruits, weighing about

35 g, with a deep purple leathery skin that wrinkles

when the fruits are fully ripe. The P. edulis f. flavi-

carpa Degener has a yellow skin softer than that of

the purple fruit and is usually larger, weighing about

80 g. It does not shrivel as badly. The rind is about

3 mm thick and has a whitish layer internally, similar

to the albedo of citrus fruit. Inside the fruit is a cavity

filled with a juicy mass of intensely fragrant, trans-

lucent yellow–orange pulp, with a distinctive sour-

sweet flavor, in which are embedded numerous

small, flattened, oval, edible, black (in purple passion

fruit) or dark brown (in yellow passion fruit) seeds.

0011 Although a hermaphrodite, the passion fruit flower

is self-sterile. Cross-pollination depends on pollin-

ators such as large bees, the carpenter bee (Xylocopa

varipuncta) and the honey bee (Apis melifera) being

the most important. To overcome the lack of natural

pollination, hand pollination is practiced in many

countries. Artificial pollination has been found to

be more efficient, and fruits from hand-pollinated

flowers are larger and juicier than fruits from insect-

pollinated flowers.

0012Passion fruit species have different periods for

flower opening, which are usually short, rarely pass-

ing 8 h. The flowers of P. edulis open at dawn and

close at midday; those of the P. edulis f. flavicarpa

open at noon and close in the evening. Thus, the time

for possible pollination is limited.

0013The purple and yellow passion fruits rarely hybrid-

ize in the field but can be crossed manually. A number

of successful hybrids have been produced in Queens-

land, Florida, and Hawaii. Commercial production in

Australia, in fact, now depends almost exclusively on

commercial hybrids. Hybrids are intermediate in skin

color and character between the two parents and have

been selected in terms of agronomic characteristics,

including resistance to viral and fungal diseases, high

yield, extended cropping season, and flavor quality

similar to the purple form.

0014In countries where the fruit is grown commercially,

the usual method of propagation is by seeds. How-

ever, vegetative propagation, mainly from rooted cut-

tings and grafting, is becoming important to obtain

disease-resistant plants and high yields.

0015The plant can grow in different types of soil, pref-

erably sandy-clay soil, provided it is deep, relatively

fertile, with good amount of organic matter, has good

drainage and a pH between 5.0 and 6.5. A tempera-

ture between 21 and 32



C favors development of this

plant, the optimum being 26–27



C. Long exposure to

sunlight (between 10 and 12 h of daylight) is required

for flowering. Annual rainfall should be between 800

and 1750 mm and well distributed throughout the

year. Heavy rainfall during the peak of flowering

will impede pollination. Irrigation is recommended

during the dry periods, and pruning is necessary for

good production. Frost and strong winds are limiting

factors to passion fruit cultivation. The vines are

usually supported by trellises in commercial planta-

tions or by wires strung between wooden or concrete

posts in small domestic farms.

0016The plant starts to produce fruit a year after

planting, but has a short productive life, varying

from 3 to 5 years, although longer periods have

been reported. The highest yield is obtained on the

second or third year, decreasing thereafter.

0017On average, 60–70 days are required from pollin-

ation to maturation of the fruit. Thus, two or more

harvesting seasons per year are possible, depending

on the climatic conditions, geographic location,

cultural practices, and other factors. In the tropics,

production is almost uninterrupted, but in subtrop-

ical regions, vegetation ceases in winter, production

PASSION FRUITS 4369

being stopped during this period and in the spring

months. Thus, in these regions, the productive period

is reduced to 6 or 7 months per year.

0018 Upon ripening, the passion fruits fall from the vine

and are picked from the ground at least once a week,

preferably more often in wet weather. The fruits

are transported in lug boxes and, if not processed

immediately, placed into cold storage. A temperature

of 6.5



C with a relative humidity of 85–90% is

recommended. Under these conditions, the fruits

can be stored for 4–5 weeks. Storage temperatures

below 6.5



C cause chill injury; at higher storage

temperatures, the fruits suffer more losses due to

moldiness.

Diseases and Pests

0019 Production of passion fruit may be adversely affected

by various diseases and insect pests. Common dis-

eases are woodiness (thickening and hardening of

the pericarp) or the mosaic disease, due to a virus

transmissible by aphids, and several diseases of

bacterial and fungal origin. Bacterial diseases include

grease spot caused by Pseudomonas passiflorae, blast

due to Pseudomonas syringae and bacterial spot

caused by Xanthomonas passiflorae or Xanthomonas

campestris pv. passiflorae. Diseases brought about by

fungi are: brown spot by Alternaria passiflorae; leaf

spot or septoria blotch by Septoria passiflorae; Fusar-

ium wilt by Fusarium spp., such as Fusarium oxy-

sporum f. passiflorae, or crown canker by Fusarium

lateritium and Fusarium sambucium, which enter the

plant at lesions and cracks; root rot caused by Thie-

laviopsis basicola; antrachnosis by Colletotrichum

gloeosporioides; cladiosporioses by Cladosporium

herbarium; and collar rot by Phytophthora cinna-

momi.

0020 Among the insect pests that can damage passion

fruits, the most important are: (1) fruitflies, notably

Dacus dorsalis, D. cucurbitae,orD. vertebrates,or

larvae of the fruitflies Anastrepha spp., Ceratitis capi-

tata and Dacus tryoni; (2) caterpillars of the butter-

flies Dione juno juno and Agraulis vanillae; (3) fruit

mites Tenvipalpus californicus, Brevipalpus papayen-

sis, B. phoenicis, Polyphagotarsonemus latus, Tetra-

nychus mexicanus, T. desertorum; (4) pasion fruit or

fruit bug Diactus bilineatus and Holymenia clavigera;

and (5) leafhopper Scolypopa australis. Purple pas-

sion fruit vines can also be damaged by nematodes,

such as Meloidogyne javanica, M. arenaria, M. incog-

nita, Scuttellona truncatum, Helicotylenchus sp.,

and Pratelenchus sp. The yellow passion fruit

is nematode-resistant. (See Insect Pests: Insects

and Related Pests; Problems Caused by Insects and

Mites.)

Chemical Composition

0021The chemical composition of the fruit and the juice is

known to vary appreciably, being affected by factors

such as variety, degree of ripeness, plant status, date

of picking, season, climate, locality or region, soil

composition, and cultural practices.

0022Although other tables on the composition of pas-

sion fruit are available in the literature, a list based on

USDA data is presented in Table 1 because this is

constantly updated.

0023The purple passion fruit juice is a good source

of ascorbic acid and carotene, a fair to good

source of riboflavin and niacin, and a fair source of

mineral matter. On an overall basis, the yellow pas-

sion fruit has less ascorbic acid,



Brix,



Brix/acid

ratio, and reducing and total sugars, but a higher

acid and carotene content.

0024Carbohydrates constitute the second largest con-

stituents of passion fruit (Table 1), and three sugars,

glucose, fructose, and sucrose, make up 86% of the

total carbohydrates, the rest being starch. The sugar

composition of yellow passion fruit consists of 29%

tbl0001Table 1 Composition of passion fruit and juice

Constituents Fruit, purple Juice, purple Juice, yellow

Proximate

Water (g) 72.9 85.6 84.2

Food energy (kcal) 97 51 60

Protein (g) 2.20 0.39 0.67

Total lipid (fat, g) 0.70 0.05 0.18

Carbohydrate, by

difference (g)

23.4 13.6 14.4

Total dietary fiber (g) 10.4 0.20 0.20

Ash (g) 0.80 0.34 0.49

Minerals

Calcium (mg) 12.0 4.0 4.0

Phosphorus (mg) 68.0 13.0 25.0

Iron (mg) 1.60 0.24 0.36

Sodium (mg) 28.0 6.0 6.0

Potassium (mg) 348 278 278

Magnesium (mg) 29.0 17.0 17.0

Zinc (mg) 0.10 0.05 0.06

Copper (mg) 0.09 0.05 0.05

Selenium (mcg) 0.60 0.10 0.10

Vitamins

Vitamin A (IU) 700 717 2410

Vitamin E (mg

a-tocopherol

equivalents)

1.12 0.05 0.05

Riboflavin (mg) 0.13 0.13 0.10

Niacin (mg) 1.5 1.5 2.2

Vitamin B

(mg) 0.10 0.05 0.06

Folate (mg) 14.0 7.0 8.0

Vitamin C (mg) 30.0 29.8 18.2

Values per 100 g of edible portion.

From USDA Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service

(2002) USDA Nutrient Database for Standard References, Release 15.

4370 PASSION FRUITS

fructose, 38% glucose, and 32% sucrose. The purple

passion fruit has 34% fructose, 37% glucose, and

29% sucrose.

0025 The nitrogen content of the juice is reported to vary

from 0.10 to 0.19%, and the crude protein content

(N 6.25) from 0.6 to 1.2%. The free amino acids

found in purple passion fruit juice are leucine, pro-

line, threonine, valine, tyrosine glycine, aspartic acid,

arginine, and lysine.

0026 The total acid content (expressed as citric acid)

ranges from 2.4 to 4.8% w/w with an average of

3.4% for the purple passion fruit juice. The yellow

passion fruit juice from Hawaii has an acidity ranging

from 3.0 to 5.0%, with an average of 4.0%. The

predominant acid is citric acid (about 83% of the

acids), followed by malic acid (16%) and lesser

amounts of lactic (0.87%), malonic (0.20%), and

succinic (trace) acids. The same organic acids are

found in the purple fruit juice, but the relative amounts

are different. Citric acid is also the most abundant

(41%), followed by lactic (23%), malonic (15%),

malic (12%), and succinic (7.6%) acids.

0027 An early study identified in purple passion fruit

the carotenoids phytofluene, a-carotene, b-carotene,

and z-carotene, of which b-carotene dominated.

Later, b-apo-12

-carotenal, b-apo-8

-carotenal,

cryptoxanthin, auroxanthin, and mutatoxanthin

were also detected. Recently, 13 carotenoids were

conclusively identified in yellow passion fruit:

phytoene, phytofluene, z-carotene, neurosporene, b-

carotene, lycopene, prolycopene, monoepoxy-b-car-

otene, b-cryptoxanthin, b-citraurin, antheraxanthin,

violaxanthin, and neoxanthin, with the yellow z-car-

otene predominating. A recent study showed cyanidin

3-glucoside to be responsible for the purple color of

the rind of P. edulis, accounting for 97% of the total

anthocyanin content. Small amounts of cyanidin

3-(6

-malonylglucoside) (2%) and pelargonidin

3-glucoside (1%) were also found.

0028 As in other fruits, the volatile composition of pas-

sion fruit is extremely complex, consisting of numer-

ous compounds, and the unique flavor and aroma

cannot be attributed to any single constituent. A

compendium in 1990 listed 84 esters, 33 aldehydes

and ketones, 71 alcohols and acids, and 25 miscellan-

eous volatiles identified in passion fruit. The volatile

constituents present in the highest concentrations are

the C-2 to C-8 esters of the C-2 to C-8 fatty acids that

occur in many fruits. Some volatiles are probably

degradation products of carotenoids, such as linalool,

b-ionone, dihydro-b-ionone and the lactone of

2-hydroxy-2,6,6-trimethylcyclohexylideneacetic acid

(dihydroactinidiolide), an oxidation product of

b-ionone, these compounds being detected in both

purple and yellow passion fruit. Dihydro-b-ionone

and 1,1,6-trimethyl-1,2-dihydronaphthalene (3,4-

dehydroionene), a possible degradation product of

b-ionone, have been found only in purple passion

fruit. Other compounds, such as edulans, mega-

stigmatrienes, and sulfur-containing compounds, not

included in the listing cited above, have also been

reported as volatile constituents of passion fruit.

0029Out of some 300 volatile flavoring constituents of

passion fruit drinks, only 22 were found likely to

contribute to the passion fruit flavor. Of these,

6-(but-2

-enylidene-1,5,5-trimethylcyclohe-1-ene

and (Z)-hex-3-enyl butanoate contributed 30 and

11%, respectively, of the passion fruit flavor profile.

Several esters present in the juice at relatively high

concentrations had negligible flavor impact values.

0030The flavor and aroma of the purple passion fruit

are often described as more pleasing than those of the

yellow fruit; this difference is reflected in the volatile

composition. The purple passion fruit has higher

levels of the major esters ethyl, butyl, and hexyl

butanoates, and butyl and hexyl hexanoates, and of

the terpene ketones, b-ionone and dihydro-b-ionone.

Some important flavor constituents of the purple pas-

sion fruit are absent in the yellow fruit: 2-heptyl

acetate, butanoate, and hexanoate, the edulans, dihi-

droionone, 1,1,6-trimethyldihydronaphthalene, and

the megastigmatrienes. There are also differences in

the terpene hydrocarbons, the yellow fruit having

relatively high concentrations of (E)-b-ocimene, myr-

cene, limonene, and 1,4-p-methadiene, whereas only

(E)-b-ocimene is present in a significant concentration

in the purple variety. (See Flavor (Flavour) Com-

pounds: Structures and Characteristics.)

0031The immature fruits have lower juice, sugar, ascor-

bic acid, and carotene contents. These fruits are more

acidic and inferior in flavor compared with the par-

tially and fully ripe fruits. Changes in the volatile

composition during maturation have also been

reported, the compounds of greatest flavor signifi-

cance reaching maximum concentrations in the fruit

that have just fallen from the vine. This observation

indicates that the common practice of harvesting pas-

sion fruit after it falls is likely to provide fruit of the

best flavor, provided that gathering from the ground

is not delayed. Another study, however, found the

fallen fruit to be lower in soluble solids, sugar, acidity,

and ascorbic acid, suggesting that the customary har-

vesting practice should be avoided. Anthocyanins and

carotenoids also increase during ripening.

Production, Utilization, and Processing

0032Reliable and updated production statistics on passion

fruits are not available. Although it is one of the better

known so-called exotic fruits, it has not reached the

PASSION FRUITS 4371

point of being one of the fruits for which production is

monitored by FAO. The major producing countries,

listed in decreasing order of area of production in

1987, are: Brazil, Peru, Sri Lanka, Ecuador, Australia,

Kenya, South Africa, Venezuela, Papua-New Guinea,

Fiji, New Zealand and the USA (Hawaii). These

countries account for 80–90% of the world’s produc-

tion of passion fruit. Taiwan and Colombia have been

markedly increasing production, a good part of which

is destined for export. Commercialization of the fresh

fruit is limited, with Kenya being the principal ex-

porter to Europe, especially to the UK. It is estimated

that 50% of the world’s production of passion fruit

juice is exported. Brazil, Peru, and Colombia are the

principal exporters of the juice, the major importers

being the UK, Germany, France, Switzerland, the

USA, and Japan.

0033 After cutting the fruit in half, the pulp and seeds

can be scooped with a spoon and eaten as is, or the

pulp can be sieved to make a refreshing drink. Be-

cause of its intense flavor and high acidity, the passion

fruit juice is considered a natural concentrate and is

often diluted, sweetened, or blended with other fruit

juices. The whole or sieved pulp is also used as a

flavoring for yogurt, icecream, sherbet, meringue, or

cake topping.

0034 In Australia, there is appreciable consumption of

the fresh fruit, although the bulk of passion fruit

production is processed into juice, consumed locally

as carbonated beverages. The juice is also used as a

flavoring for icecream, confectioneries, and tropical

fruit salads. Australian consumers are used to eating

and drinking passion fruit products with the seeds

still present, the seeds being regarded as evidence of

passion fruit content. Elsewhere, the seeds must be

removed.

0035 Production of passion fruit in Fiji and Papua-New

Guinea is largely for export to Australia and New

Zealand as frozen, unsweetened pulp or juice. A sig-

nificant part of production in Fiji is also consumed in

homes and restaurants as mixed drinks. Passion fruit

products in Sri Lanka include jams and sweetened

and unsweetened juices. In India, this fruit is pro-

cessed into passion fruit squash.

0036 Most of the passion fruit produced in Hawaii is

consumed as drinks blended with other fruit juices,

such as orange and/or guava, the remainder being

used as frozen juice bases. Passion fruit juice is con-

sidered too acidic for icecream, but this characteristic

is advantageous in the preparation of sherbet. Minor

uses are as a flavoring for syrups and as a pie filling.

0037 The principal passion fruit products in Brazilian

market are the juice and the frozen pulp, these two

products serving as the base for other products such

as drinks, yogurt, icecream, confectioneries (cakes,

meringues, and chocolate fillings), gelatin, marma-

lades, and fruit cocktails. Fresh fruits are also

marketed. In Venezuela, popular products include

passion fruit juice, passion fruit icecream, and a

bottled passion fruit and rum cocktail.

0038Passion fruits are preserved by freezing or thermal

processing. Two characteristics of this fruit favor

freezing. Firstly, the flavor is extremely sensitive to

heat, so it is difficult to heat-process the juice without

markedly altering the flavor. Secondly, the high starch

content causes the accumulation of gelatinous de-

posits on the heating surfaces of the heat exchanger,

lowering its efficiency, as well as causing deterior-

ation of juice flavor. Enzymatic degradation of starch

and centrifugal procedures for removing starch have

been recommended.

0039Production of passion fruit juice can be done

manually, as in many small cottage industries, con-

sisting simply of hand-slicing the fruit, scooping out

the pulp, and separating out the seeds either through

sieving or expression through a cloth.

0040In Hawaii, the processing of passion fruit is highly

mechanized, a centrifugal separator being the favored

method for extraction of the pulp. A typical extractor

has a capacity of 1725 kg h

1

of passion fruit with an

extraction efficiency of 94%. Its main disadvantages

are: (1) some seeds are cut in the slicing operation,

which necessitates the use of a fine screen in the

finishing operation; and (2) there may be some

extraction of skin flavors.

0041In Australia, the converging cone extractor is the

most commonly employed extractor. In another

method, a modified apricot-pitting machine and

plunger are used. Since Australians are accustomed

to consuming passion fruit products with the seeds,

further processing to remove the seeds from the pulp

is not necessary. Elsewhere, consumers’ preference for

seedless passion fruit products necessitates further

processing.

0042The extraction unit most commonly utilized in

Brazil is a three-stage system, consisting of a cutter,

a perforated cylinder with a series of beaters that

separates the rind from the pulp and seeds, and a

pulper that separates the juice from the seeds and

does the finishing of the juice.

0043Much of the earlier canned passion fruit juice was

considerably overcooked. More recent processes

make use of slightly higher temperature and shorter

heating times. The most successful method for ther-

mal processing of the juice employs a spin cooker.

This cooker is an inexpensive, easily constructed

unit, utilizing rapid can rotation to transfer heat

quickly. Pasteurization to an 88



C center tempera-

ture is achieved in about 1

⁄

min, after which the cans

are rapidly cooled with a cold water spray while still

4372 PASSION FRUITS

rotating. The color and flavor retention in this

method is much better than in any alternative method

of heat preservation.

0044 To concentrate passion fruit juice, centrifugal evap-

orators have been successfully used in Brazil and

Australia. The main advantage is the short residence

time (0.2–1.0 s), which minimizes heat damage. Pas-

sion fruit concentrate can be stored at 18



C for 6

months, 4



C for 3 months, and 20



C for 1 month

with good color and flavor retention and no micro-

bial spoilage.

0045 Passion fruit juice may be quick-frozen directly

from the finisher. Preferably, a slush-type or scraped-

surface freezer should be used to hasten the freezing

process, aside from increasing the freezing capacity of

the processing plant. The juice may also be frozen

directly in containers in an air-blast freezer. This

product is sold to manufacturers of juice blends and

of foods with passion fruit as an ingredient or as a

major flavor component.

0046 According to folk medicine, passion fruit has

sedative and muscle-relaxant properties. Medicinal

utilization of the leaves has also been cited.

0047 In the extraction of juice from the passion fruit,

about two-thirds of the bulk is refuse, of which 90%

is rind and about 10% is seeds. Passion fruit rind has

been found to be satisfactory as a supplementing

feedstuff for dairy cows, and so it is commercially

utilized as feed for dairy animals in Hawaii. In Brazil,

the passion fruit rind is used as a component of

rations for cattle and hogs. Other possible uses of

subproducts, such as pectin from the rind and oil

from the seeds, have not reached the industrial scale.

See also: Acids: Natural Acids and Acidulants; Amino

Acids: Properties and Occurrence; Ascorbic Acid:

Properties and Determination; Physiology; Canning:

Quality Changes During Canning; Carbohydrates:

Classification and Properties; Carotenoids: Occurrence,

Properties, and Determination; Flavor (Flavour)

Compounds: Structures and Characteristics; Freezing:

Structural and Flavor (Flavour) Changes; Heat

Treatment: Chemical and Microbiological Changes;

Insect Pests: Insects and Related Pests; Problems

Caused by Insects and Mites; Minerals – Dietary

Importance; Vitamins: Overview