Bhushan B. Nanotribology and Nanomechanics: An Introduction

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1284 Bharat Bhushan

chining (such as microturning, micromilling, and microdrilling) or removal by en-

ergy beams (such as microspark erosion, focused ion beam, laser ablation, and laser

polymerization) [19,203]. Hybrid technologies including LIGA and high-precision

micromachining techniques have been used to produce miniaturized motors, gears,

actuators, and connectors [88–90, 204]. These millimeter-scale devices may ﬁnd

more immediate applications.

Amicro/nanofabrication technique, so-called soft lithography, is a non-litho-

graphic technique [53, 59,205,206] in which a master or mold is used to generate

patterns, deﬁned by the relief on its surface, on polymers by replica molding [207],

embossing(nanoimprintlithography)[208], orby contact printing(knownas micro-

contact printing or μCP) [209]. Soft lithography is faster, less expensive, and more

suitable for most biological applications than glass orsilicon micromachining.Poly-

mers have established an important role in BioMEMS/BioNEMS because of their

reduced cost. The use of polymers also oﬀers a wide range of material properties

to allow tailoring of biological interactions for improved biocompatibility. Polymer

fabrication is believed to be about an order of magnitude cheaper than silicon fabri-

cation.

Replica molding is the transfer of a topographic pattern by curing or solidi-

fying a liquid precursor against the original patterned mold. The mold or stamp

is generally made of a two-part polymer (elastomer and curing agent), called

poly(dimethylsiloxane) (PDMS) from photolithographically generated photoresist

master. Solvent-basedembossing,or imprinting,uses a solventto restructurea poly-

mer ﬁlm. Hot embossing, also called nanoimprint lithography, usually refers to

the transfer of pattern from a micromachined quartz or metal master to a pliable

plastic sheet. Heat and high pressure allow the plastic sheet to become imprinted.

These sheets can then be bonded to various plastics such as polymethyl methacry-

late (PMMA). Nanoimprint lithography can produce patterns on a surface having

10-nm resolution. Contact printing uses a patterned stamp to transfer ink (mostly

self-assembled monolayers) onto a surface in a pattern deﬁned by the raised regions

of a stamp. These techniques can be used to pattern line widths as small as 60nm.

Replica moldingis commonlyused for mass-produceddisposableplastic micro/

nanocomponents, for example micro/nanoﬂuidic chips, generally made of PDMS

and PMMA [206,210], and is also more ﬂexible in choice of materials for construc-

tion than conventional photolithography.

To assemble microsystems, microrobots are used. Microrobotics include build-

ing blocks, such as steering links, microgrippers, conveyor system, and locomotive

robots [17].

22.A.2 Bottom-Up Fabrication (Nanochemistry)

The bottom-up approach (from small to large) largely relies on nanochemistry [39,

40,42–46]. The bottom-up approach includes chemical synthesis, the spontaneous

self-assembly of molecular clusters (molecular self-assembly) from simple reagents

in solution or biological molecules as building blocks to produce three-dimensional

nanostructuresas done by nature, quantum dots (nanocrystals) of arbitrary diameter

22 Characterization of MEMS/NEMS and BioMEMS/BioNEMS 1285

(about 1×10

–1×10

atoms), molecular-beam epitaxy (MBE) and organometallic

vapor-phase epitaxy (OMVPE) to create specialized crystals one atomic or molec-

ular layer at a time, and manipulation of individual atoms by a scanning tunnel-

ing microscope or an atomic force microscope or atom optics. The self-assembly

must be encoded, that is, one must be able to precisely assemble one object next

to another to form a designed pattern. A variety of nonequilibrium plasma chem-

istry techniques are also used to produce layered nanocomposites, nanotubes, and

nanoparticles. Nanostructures can also be fabricated using mechanosynthesis with

proximal probes.

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163. H. Liu, B. Bhushan: Investigation of nanotribological properties of self-assembled

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173. M. Nosonovsky, B. Bhushan: Roughness optimization for biomimetic superhydropho-

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