Beglar D., Murray N. Inside Track to Writing Dissertations and Theses
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Appendix
216
2.6 The Pedagogical Application: Translating
Principles into Classroom Techniques/Activities 48
2.6.1 Functional Communication Activities 48
2.6.2 Social Interaction Activities 50
2.6.3 Authenticity is to Principles as Group Work/Pair
Work is to Practices 51
2.6.4 Similar Concepts, Different Terminology 53
2.7 Spoken Versus Written Communication 56
2.8 A Summary and Preview 56
Chapter 3
THE STATE AND STATUS OF COMMUNICATIVE LANGUAGE
TEACHING (II): SOME PROBLEMS AND CONTROVERSIES
3.1 Introduction 57
3.2 Questions of Consistency 57
3.3 Necessities Versus Contingencies 59
3.3.1 From Theoretical Impetus to Principles 59
3.3.1.1 Affective Principles: Individual Variability Vs. Collectivity 72
3.3.2 From Principles to Practices 73
3.4 The Need for a Re-analysis of the Approach,
and a Recipe for Clarification and Improvement 77
Chapter 4
THE EMERGENCE AND DEVELOPMENT OF COMMUNICATIVE
COMPETENCE THEORY
4.1 Introduction 81
4.2 The Theoretical Motivation for a Theory
of Communicative Competence 82
4.2.1 Chomsky’s Competence-Performance Distinction 82
4.2.2 Hymes’s Response to Chomsky: The Notion of
“Acceptability” and the Move from “Competence”
to “Communicative Competence” 82
4.3 Bridging the Theoretical and Practical Origins
of the Communicative Movement 87
4.4 The Practical Basis for a Theory of
Communicative Competence 87
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4.4.1 Experiential Considerations 87
4.4.2 The Influence of English for Specific Purposes 89
4.5 4 Frameworks of Communicative Competence 90
4.5.1 Hymes’s 4 Parameters 90
4.5.2 Spolsky’s Framework 91
4.5.3 Canale and Swain’s Framework 92
4.5.4 Bachman’s Framework of “Communicative
Language Ability” 94
4.6 2 Criteria for Assessing Frameworks of
Communicative Competence 97
Chapter 5
ASSESSING THE UTILITY OF FRAMEWORKS
OF
COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE
5.1 Linking the Means of Learning to the Ends
of Learning 101
5.2 Communicative Language Teaching and the
‘Authenticity’ Solution 102
5.3 Two Aspects of Pedagogical Utility . . . And One
More Ambiguity 103
5.3.1 Authenticity of Syllabus 103
5.3.2 Authenticity of Methodology 109
5.3.2.1 Some Problems with ‘Authentic’Methodology 110
5.4 The Poverty of ‘Use’-Oriented SLA Research,
and the Communicative Competence Theory-SLA
Theory Divide 112
5.5 Early Conclusions 113
5.6 How Appropriate are Authentic Language
and Techniques? 114
5.6.1 What are “Appropriate” Language and “Appropriate”
Techniques?: Widdowson’s Criteria 114
5.6.1.1 Breen’s Concept of Authenticity 116
5.6.1.2 The Need for Reflection in Language Learning:
Tarvin and Al-Arishi’s view 122
5.6.2 Richards and Rodgers’Articulation of a ‘Theory
of Learning’ in CLT 123
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5.7 Some Further Thoughts on Authenticity 124
5.8 Summary: Foundations for a New Perspective
on CLT 126
Chapter 6
AREVISED VIEW OF AUTHENTICITY: THE THEORETICAL
IMPLICATIONS FOR COMMUNICATIVE LANGUAGE TEACHING
6.1 The Potential for a Resolution of Inconsistencies 130
6.2 Legitimising the Use of Metalanguage and
a “Focus of Form” 134
6.2.1 Pooling Resources: Systemic and Schematic Knowledge 135
6.2.1.1 The Need for Systemic Knowledge as Justification for
a Writing Focus in the Foreign Language Classroom 137
6.3 Taking Stock 138
6.4 The Role of the Learner’s First Language 139
6.4.1 The Learner’s L1 as a Resource 139
6.4.2 A Case for Reinstating Grammar-Translation 139
6.4.3 Reassessing the Role of Contrastive Analysis 140
6.5 The Role of the Learner’s Culture 140
6.6 The Role of the Non-Native Speaker Teacher 141
6.7 Summary and Conclusion 142
Chapter 7
JAPAN REVISITED: EDUCATIONAL TRADITIONS AND THEIR
MANIFESTATION IN THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE CLASSROOM
7.1 Introduction 146
7.2 Characteristics of the Japanese English Language
Classroom: The Historical Foundations 146
7.2.1 Confucianism 148
7.2.2 The Prewar Tradition 150
7.3 The Legacy of the Confucian and Prewar
Traditions: The Dynamics of Contemporary
Japanese Classrooms 152
7.3.1 Shiken Jigoku (Examination Hell) 152
7.3.2 Realising Confucian Principles and Feudal Ideals 154
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7.3.3 The Physical Environment 156
7.3.4 Japanese Education: “Classical Humanism” at Work 157
7.4 Japanese Traditions in Language Teaching 159
7.5 Summary: A Profile of the Typical English
Language Classroom in Japan 161
Chapter 8
COMMUNICATIVE LANGUAGE TEACHING AND THE JAPANESE
ENGLISH LANGUAGE CLASSROOM: INCOMPATIBILITIES,
R
ESOLUTIONS AND THE PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS OF
A
NEW PERSPECTIVE
8.1 Reviewing the Necessary Principles of
Communicative Language Teaching 165
8.2 The Pre-Revisionist View of CLT:
Spelling Out Incompatibilities 165
8.2.1 The Teaching of Culture Vs. Ethnocentrism
& Antipathy Toward Western Values/Lifestyle 166
8.2.2 Discourse, Interaction & Negotiated Meaning Vs.
Traditional Examinations & Classroom Behaviour 167
8.2.3 Learner-Centred Classrooms/Learner Autonomy Vs.
Confucian Ideals and a Powerful Respect for Tradition 168
8.2.4 Tolerance of Error/Comprehensible Pronunciation Vs.
Emphasis on Formal Correctness 169
8.2.5 Fluency and Pragmatic Meaning Vs. Teacher-Fronted/
Non-Interactive Classrooms, and Traditional
Examinations 170
8.2.6 Summary and Conclusions 170
8.3 Resolutions: How a Rigorous Analysis of Ideas
and Sensitivity to Context Serve as Keys to
Compromise and Effective Implementation 171
8.3.1 Some Introductory Remarks 171
8.3.2 Identifying Commonalities Between a Revised View
of CLT and Conventional Behaviour/Attitudes in
Japanese English Language Classrooms 172
8.3.2.1 Writing and Metalanguage 173
8.3.2.2 The First Language (Japanese), Grammar
Translation and Contrastive Analysis 173
➨
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8.2.3.3 The Learner’s Own (Japanese) Culture 174
8.2.3.4 The Japanese English Language Teacher 175
8.3.3 Applications: 3 Examples 175
8.3.3.1 Developing an Appreciation of Discourse and Context 176
8.3.3.2 Presenting the L2 Culture 177
8.3.3.3 Promoting Learner Interaction 178
Chapter 9
FOSTERING A NEW TEACHER ATTITUDE: THE CHALLENGE
FOR
LANGUAGE TEACHER EDUCATION
9.1 Language Teacher Education Versus Language
Teacher Training 180
9.2 What Makes for an Informed Autonomy? 184
9.2.1 Theoretico-Analytic Knowledge 185
9.2.2 Experiential Knowledge 186
9.2.2.1 The Role of Intuition 187
9.2.3 Contextual Knowledge 189
9.2.4 A Developed Sense of Self-Confidence and Initiative 191
9.2.5 The Ability to Synthesise Knowledge Types in Selecting
Strategies and Creating Pedagogical Solutions 192
9.3 Developing Informed Autonomy in Student
Teachers: Some Practical Suggestions for LTE
Programmes 193
9.3.1 The Analysis of Language Teacher Texts 195
9.3.1.1 Performing Critical Discourse Analyses on
Selected Texts 195
9.3.1.2 Analysing Schemes of Thought Featured in the
Literature 196
9.3.1.3 Performing Contrastive Analyses on Different Texts 196
9.3.2 The Teaching Practicum 197
9.3.3 Familiarisation with Principles Governing the
Diffusion of Innovations in Language Teaching 199
9.3.4 Syllabus Design/Implementation Strategies 203
9.3.5 Self/Teacher Observation and Classroom Research 204
9.3.6 General Discussion and Debate 208
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9.3.7 Conference Attendance 209
9.4 A Final Note 209
Chapter 10
RECOMMENDATIONS FOR LANGUAGE TEACHER EDUCATION:
R
ELATING THEORY TO PRACTICE
10.1 Introduction 212
10.2 The Analysis of Language Teacher Texts 212
10.2.1 Performing Critical Discourse Analyses on Selected
Texts 212
10.2.2 Analysing Schemes of Thought Featured in the
Literature 213
10.2.3 Performing Contrastive Analyses on Different Texts 214
10.3 The Teaching Practicum 214
10.4 Familiarisation with Principles Governing
the Diffusion of Innovations in Language Teaching 216
10.5 Syllabus Design/Implementation Strategies 218
10.6 Self/Teacher Observation and Classroom Research 219
10.7 General Discussion and Debate 221
10.8 Conference Attendance 222
10.9 Other Issues 224
Chapter 11
CONCLUSIONS
11.1 A Review of the Fundamental Issues 228
11.2 The Proposals for Change in Language Teacher
Education: Some Considerations 232
11.2.1 Establishing a Realistic Time Frame 232
11.2.2 The Fate of Ideas Entering the Public Domain 233
11.2.3 The Paradox of Critical Enquiry 236
11.2.4 Conclusion 238
11.3 Directions for Future Research 238
Bibliography 242
(Source: Author’s own work)
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Sample list of figures (2)
List of figures
Figure 1
A Model for Describing Language Teaching Proposals 34
Figure 2
Language Use and the Classroom Activities Designed
to Reflect it: A Comparison of Terminology 55
Figure 3
Bachman’s “Components of communicative language
ability in communicative language use” 95
Figure 4
Bachman’s “Components of Language Competence” 96
Figure 5
Savignon’s “Components of Communicative Competence” 121
Figure 6
Larsen-Freeman’s Distinction Between the Training
and Educating Processes 181
Figure 7
Factors that Hinder/Facilitate Change 201
(Source: Author’s own work)
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SELECTED ANSWERS TO ACTIVITIES
Activity 4.1 Avoiding clichés and using alternatives
Here are some possible answers.
1 The fall of the Berlin Wall and the historic meetings between Gorbachev, Reagan
and Thatcher were clear indicators that change was not just inevitable but
already under way.
or
The fall of the Berlin Wall and the historic meetings between Gorbachev, Reagan
and Thatcher were clear indicators of change.
or
The fall of the Berlin Wall and the historic meetings between Gorbachev, Reagan
and Thatcher both heralded change.
2 With the advantage of hindsight, the years following Armistice Day represented
a brief interregnum before war once again broke out, and on a scale never before
seen.
3 In the initial weeks following the Watergate scandal, some constitutional experts
were confident that President Richard Nixon’s downfall was inevitable.
4 Research has shown that people of different social, educational and professional
backgrounds share similar attitudes to violent crime.
or
Regardless of their background, all people share similar attitudes to violent
crime, according to the research.
5 Throughout history, mankind has sought to explain his world and give meaning
to his existence.
or
Man has always sought to explain his world and give meaning to his existence.
6 One common perception was that the vast majority of politicians are dishonest
and self-serving.
or
One common perception was that politicians who are honest and not self-
serving are rare.
Activity 4.2 Integrating and formatting long quotations
Possible answer:
While it is widely acknowledged that an understanding of law is a crucial part of
the social worker’s toolkit, one that both informs their practice while also affording
them protection against legal action, as Wilson et al. note, its notoriously ambigu-
ous nature means that it can be difficult to navigate:
To practice social work effectively it is necessary to have a critical understand-
ing of law and to recognise its limitations alongside its strengths. A common
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Selected answers to activities
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misconception about law is that it is clear-cut and provides unambiguous
answers or solutions. In fact some provisions of the law lack that clarity and
may be open to interpretation. When new legislation is introduced it is some-
times necessary to wait for clarification on meaning of certain provisions from
the courts. In other situations law may appear to lack clear direction because it
allows discretion for practice within broad boundaries.
(Wilson et al., 2008: 191)
Activity 4.3 Integrating and formatting short quotations
Possible answers:
Text 1
Without doubt, marketing is considerably more sophisticated today than it was
even thirty years ago. This is in part due to technological developments that allow
for more complex analyses of markets and buyer behaviour. One particular area of
buyer behaviour that has recently been a subject of discussion in the literature is
that of the so-called cyclical nature of purchasing, where, according to Kotler et al.,
‘People’s attitudes and lifestyles are influenced by past purchases, and each pas-
sage through awareness interest, desire and action influences all other purchase
decisions’ (1996: 44). This notion contrasts with the linear view of consumer behav-
iour, where . . .
Text 2
What emerges from most studies that look at attainment levels of high school
pupils is that there is a clear correlation between both socio-economic status and
ethnicity and academic success. Although there are efforts being made to reduce
attainment gaps, these, as Davies notes, ‘are reliant on government funding and
initiatives, and rely on a national vision and drive to counteract disadvantage and
deprivation’ (2006: 55). Unfortunately, that vision and drive is frequently inade-
quate to bring about change of the magnitude required to really make inroads into
the problem.
Text 3
One of the biggest challenges facing new teachers is to deliver material in such a
way that it engages and develops all pupils in a class regardless of their different
capacities. These teachers quickly need to find ways to ensure that ‘pupils who are
finding the topic easy will be able to develop and enrich their learning and not be
held back’ while ‘those who find the topic or area of work more challenging will be
supported so that they will in time get to a competent level of understanding’
(Davies, 2006: 19). To achieve this requires careful planning, sensitive and strategic
implementation, and above all experience.
Activity 4.4 Paraphrasing a text
Possible answers:
This view accords with that of Smith (1988), who believes that despite the emergence
of new technologies – most obviously the computer – and the enormous sums of
money invested in efforts to find an ideal method for teaching reading, those ‘tradi-
tional’ methods and materials we have always used cannot be significantly bettered.
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Selected answers to activities
Wray et al. (1998) explain the popularity of closed questions in terms of the ease
with which they can be scored, and the range of formats for tallying and compar-
ing responses that they permit.
Activity 4.5 Quoting secondary sources
Possible answer:
According to research conducted by Vennard (cited in Elliott and Quinn 1996),
acquittal rates in the Crown Court tend to be significantly higher than those in
magistrates’ courts. This confirms the belief of many defendants that they are
more likely to be acquitted in the Crown Court.
Activity 4.6 Writing an introduction 1
Possible answer:
■ Advances in technology – flight and information technology in particular – have
created a ‘smaller’, more inter-dependent and more homogeneous world.
■ This has led to the emergence of a global society which in turn has resulted in
the interaction of different ethnic groups both within and outside the workplace.
■ Multiculturalism is increasingly a reality for most businesses. As such they
need to be able to respond to that reality.
■ Intercultural awareness and intercultural communications skills are part of
that response.
■ Good intercultural communication helps ensure understanding is maximised,
conflict minimised and efficiency increased.
■ Good intercultural communication helps ensure that individuals clearly under-
stand and are therefore able to fulfil their roles in the organisation.
■ Good intercultural communication helps ensure that the organisation is able to
draw on and benefit from the diverse talents of all its employees and business
associates.
■ Good intercultural communication means recognising and maximising busi-
ness opportunities.
Activity 4.7 Constructing and positioning thesis statements
Possible answers (with thesis statements underlined):
Statement at the end
The incidence of depression among teenagers is on the increase. Research spanning
the past ten years and focusing on the records and anecdotal evidence of health pro-
fessionals, including Counsellors, GPs, psychiatrists and psychologists, suggests that
more young people than ever are requiring treatment for the disorder – a trend par-
ticularly evident in the developed world. Furthermore, it seems that teenage girls are
more susceptible to depression than teenage boys.
One of the costs of this unfortunate trend is the enormous toll it can take on the
psychological wellbeing of the parents of children who suffer from depression and
who themselves can, in more severe cases, sometimes end up requiring support in
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