Baca A.G., Ashby C.I.H. Fabrication of GaAs Devices
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DEDICATION
To my wife, Beatriz, my children, Luis and Michelle, my mother,
Nina, and my late father, Alfonso. A.G.B.
With my heart-felt appreciation to my husband, Jim, and my
children, Paul and Lydia, for the many hours of my time that they
sacrificed to the writing of this book. Et soli Deo gloria. C.I.H.A.
v
CONTENTS
Acknowledgment xiii
Abbreviations xv
1 Introduction to GaAs devices 1
1.1 Scope of this book 1
1.2 GaAs materials 2
1.3 Types of GaAs devices 4
1.3.1 Electronic devices 4
1.3.2 Photonic devices 5
1.4 A brief history of GaAs devices 6
1.4.1 History of GaAs electronic devices 6
1.4.2 History of GaAs photonic devices 9
1.5 Applications of GaAs devices 10
1.5.1 Photonic device applications 11
1.5.2 Electronic device applications 15
References 19
2 Semiconductor properties, growth,
characterisation and processing techniques 21
2.1 Chapter scope 21
2.2 Semiconductor properties 21
2.2.1 Energy levels and band structure in
semiconductors 22
2.2.2 Charged carriers in semiconductors 27
2.2.3 Carrier transport and continuity
equations 32
2.3 Bulk crystal growth 33
2.3.1 Methods of crystal growth 34
2.3.2 Substrate properties and device
requirements 36
2.4 Epitaxy 38
2.4.1 Molecular beam epitaxy 40
2.4.2 Metal-organic chemical vapour deposition 43
2.5 Material characterisation 46
2.5.1 Light-based techniques 47
2.5.2 Electron beam techniques 49
vii
Contents
2.5.3 Ionic techniques 53
2.5.4 Electrical characterisation 56
2.6 Processing techniques 60
2.7 Back end processing and analysis 60
2.7.1 Backside processing, die separation and
packaging 61
2.7.2 Reliability 64
2.7.3 Failure analysis 66
2.8 Conclusion 66
References 67
3 Cleaning and passivation of GaAs and related
alloys 69
3.1 Chapter scope 69
3.2 Cleaning and native oxide removal 69
3.2.1 Removal of organic and metal ion
contaminants 69
3.2.2 Removal of native oxide 71
3.2.3 Regrowth of native oxide 72
3.3 Passivation of GaAs 74
3.3.1 Electronic properties of the GaAs
surface 75
3.3.2 Chalcogenide passivation: S and Se 91
3.3.3 Passivation for improved semiconductor
regrowth 101
3.3.4 Passivation for improved contact
metallisation 102
3.3.5 Special oxide passivations 106
3.3.6 Dielectric passivations: PECVD and
ECR SiN
x
and SiO
x
N
y
109
3.4 Conclusion 114
References 114
4 Wet etching and photolithography of GaAs and
related alloys 117
4.1 Chapter scope 117
4.2 Mechanism of wet etch processes 118
4.3 Rates and profiles 118
4.3.1 Diffusion control 121
4.3.2 Reaction-rate control 123
4.3.3 Aging of etching solution 124
4.4 Practical wet etching 125
4.4.1 Photoresist issues 127
4.4.2 Basic wet etches 132
4.4.3 Acidic wet etches 133
4.4.4 Metal etches 135
viii
Contents
4.5 Compositional selectivity 136
4.5.1 GaAs versus AlGaAs selectivity 137
4.5.2 Selectivity versus other materials 139
4.6 Effects of doping type 141
4.7 Electrolytic effects in wet etching 142
4.8 Effects of defects and damage 144
4.9 Conclusion 144
References 144
5 Dry etching of GaAs and related alloys 147
5.1 Chapter scope 147
5.2 Comparison of wet and dry etching 147
5.3 Overview of dry etching processes 149
5.4 Ion-beam etching (IBE) and ion effects in
other plasma processes 150
5.5 Chemical dry etching 151
5.6 Plasma etching at very low ion energies 152
5.7 Conventional reactive ion etching (RIE) 153
5.7.1 Halogen-based plasmas for RIE 155
5.7.2 Alkane-based plasmas for RIE 159
5.8 High-density plasma etching (HDPE) 160
5.9 Reactive-ion-beam etching (RIBE)
and chemically assisted ion-beam etching
(CAIBE) 163
5.10 General issues for dry etching 167
5.10.1 Etch uniformity 167
5.10.2 Damage from dry etching 168
5.10.3 Resists and their behaviour in dry
etching processes 170
5.10.4 Advantages of Ar addition 174
5.10.5 Methods for end-point determination 174
5.10.6 Plasma diagnostics for trouble-shooting 176
5.10.7 Chamber cleaning issues 176
5.10.8 Effect of chamber materials 177
5.11 Conclusion 177
References 178
6 Ohmic contacts 179
6.1 Chapter scope 179
6.2 Principles of ohmic contacts 179
6.2.1 Definitions 180
6.2.2 Physics of ohmic contact formation 181
6.2.3 Metallurgy of ohmic contact formation 183
6.3 Fabrication and testing of ohmic contacts 186
6.3.1 Fabrication of ohmic contacts 186
6.3.2 Measurements of ohmic contacts 191
ix