ASM Metals HandBook Vol. 8 - Mechanical Testing and Evaluation
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101. R.E. Schramm, J. Szelazek, and A. Van Clark, Jr., Ultrasonic Measurement of Residual Stress in
the Rims of Inductively Heated Railroad Wheels, Mater. Eval., August 1996, p 929–933
102. H. Fukuaka, H. Tada, K. Hirakawa, H. Sakawoto, and Y. Toyo, Acoustoelastic Measurements of
Residual Stresses in the Rim of Railroad Wheels, Wave Propagation in Inhomogenous Media and
Ultrasonic Nondestructive Evaluation, Vol 6, G.C. Johnson, Ed., American Society of Mechanical
Engineers, 1984, p 185–193
103. E.R. Schneider, R. Harzer, D. Bruche, and H. Frotscher, Reliability Assurance of Railroad
Wheels by Ultrasonic Stress Analysis, Proc. of Third European Conf. on Residual Stress Analysis, 4–6
Nov 1992, DGM Informationsgesellschaft mbH
104. D.M. Egle and D.E. Bray, Ultrasonic Measurement of Longitudinal Rail Stresses, Mater. Eval.,
Vol 378 (No. 4), March 1979, p 41–46
105. D.E. Bray and T. Leon-Salamanca, Zero-Force Travel-Time Parameters of Ultrasonic Head-
Waves in Railroad Rail, Mater. Eval., Vol 43 (No. 7), June 1985, p 854–858
106. C.G. Gardner, Barkhausen Noise Analysis, Proc. of a Workshop on Nondestructive Evaluation of
Residual Stress, NTIAC-76-2, 1975, p 211–217
107. R. Chait, “Residual Stress Pattern in a High Hardness Laminar Composite Steel Weldment,”
Proc. of a Workshop on Nondestructive Eval. of Residual Stress, NTIAC-76-2, 1975, p 237–245
108. O. Sundstrom and K. Torronen, The Use of Barkhausen Noise Analysis in Nondestructive
Testing, Mater. Eval., Feb 1979, p 51–56
109. J.R. Barton, F.N. Kusenberger, R.E. Beissner, and G.A. Matskanin, Advanced Quantitative
Magnetic Nondestructive Evaluation Methods, Theory and Experiment, Nondestructive Evaluation of
Materials, J.J. Burke and V. Weiss, Ed., Plenum Press, 1979, p 461–463
110. K. Ono, M. Shibata, and M.M. Kwan, “Determination of Residual Stress by Magnetomechanical
Acoustic Emission,” ONR Technical Report 80-01, April 1980
111. R.R. King and V.D. Smith, “Residual Stress Measurements in Structural Steels,” Final Report
SWRI Project 15-4600, Contract DOT-FH-11-9133, January 1978
112. H.D. Allison and R.W. Hendricks, Correlation of Barkhausen Noise Signal and X-Ray Residual
Stress Determinations in Grinding-Burned 52100 Steel,” The Fifth International Conference on
Residual Stresses, Vol 2, Institute of Technology, Linkopings University, Sweden, 1997, p 640–645
Residual Stress Measurements
Clayton O. Ruud, The Pennsylvania State University
Summary
Only the destructive stress relief, semidestructive hole drilling, or nondestructive XRD methods of residual
stress measurement are generally reliable over a broad range of alloys displaying residual stress fields induced
by the various manufacturing processes. By and large, failures on metallic components caused or aided by
residual stresses are due to surface stresses and can be measured by surface measuring methods including XRD
and, for some cases, hole drilling. In these cases good spatial resolution and identification of the magnitude and
location of the highest stresses is of primary importance. On the other hand, when distortion of metallic
components presents a problem, the distribution and magnitude of residual stresses through the bulk of the
component are of most interest, and high resolution and identification of areas of high stress magnitude are not
of primary concern. In either case, stress measurement precision on the order of 5 ksi (35 MPa) is usually
sufficient. Measurement of residual stresses can be very expensive and time consuming, and it is often
worthwhile to consult experts in the field before deciding on a measurement method. Before an engineer or
scientist not experienced in residual stress measurement selects a method and attempts to measure stresses,
consultation with an expert experienced in residual stress measurement and analysis should be sought.
Residual Stress Measurements
Clayton O. Ruud, The Pennsylvania State University
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Stress Determinations in Grinding-Burned 52100 Steel,” The Fifth International Conference on
Residual Stresses, Vol 2, Institute of Technology, Linkopings University, Sweden, 1997, p 640–645
Mechanical Testing of Fiber-Reinforced Composites
*
Dale Wilson, The Johns Hopkins University, Leif A. Carlsson, Florida Atlantic University
Introduction
THE CHARACTERIZATION of engineering properties is a complex issue for fiber-reinforced composites
(FRC) due to their inherent anisotropy and inhomogeneity. In terms of mechanical properties, advanced
composite materials are evaluated by a number of specially designed test methods. These test methods are
mechanically simple in concept but extremely sensitive to specimen preparation and test-execution procedures,
often requiring complex data reduction analysis. The rigor of specimen fabrication and testing practices
employed determine the quality and cost of the resulting mechanical property data. It is important to define the
purpose of mechanical characterization prior to conducting tests. The purpose determines the type of testing
program, specimen fabrication, testing rigor, and, ultimately, the cost of characterization. Costs are controlled
and time is saved by matching quality and accuracy requirements to the intended materials usage.
Footnote
*
The section “Interlaminar Shear Properties of Fiber-
Reinforced Composites at High Strain Rates” was written
by John Harding and Stephen Hallett, Oxford University. The section “Fatigue Testing and Behavior of Fiber-
Reinforced Composites” was written by W. Steven Johnson and Ramesh Talreja, Georgia Institute of
Technology.
Mechanical Testing of Fiber-Reinforced Composites
Dale Wilson, The Johns Hopkins University, Leif A. Carlsson, Florida Atlantic University
General Concepts
Before describing the principal tests used for mechanical characterization of composites, the authors offer a
review of the purposes of such tests and general considerations related to the mechanical properties of
anisotropic systems, specimen fabrication, equipment and fixturing, environmental conditioning, and analysis
of test results.
Purposes of Mechanical Characterization
The three most common purposes of mechanical property characterization are research and development,
quality control (QC), and design data generation. Various levels of rigor are practiced within each category, but,
in general, design data generation is the most rigorous. Rigor, as applied here, refers to the process of strictly
following processing, fabrication, testing, and data reduction standards and specifications on statistically
significant sample sets made from commercially standard materials.
Testing in support of research and development serves a variety of purposes and, by definition, must be
flexible. Research and development testing is used to develop and assess the validity of the test methods, to aid
in exploring materials science and mechanics concepts, and to support scientific discovery in materials
development and applications research. In the materials industry, research and development testing supports the
study of materials performance in comparison to program objectives, competitive materials, or other
developmental materials. Once a material is developed, the tests can also be used to produce the first generation
of property data used to market the new material. The goal of most industrial research and development testing
is to control costs, keep turnaround times short, and develop data with accuracy and repeatability sufficient for
comparisons. Often this is achieved by using small sample sizes, less rigor in specimen preparation, and
minimal levels of test instrumentation. Testing is defined by internal procedures for specimen fabrication, test
execution, and data reduction. Flexibility exists to modify specimen preparation and test procedures or to create
new test methods, as required to meet research and development objectives.
Quality control characterization is defined primarily by customer acceptance of test methods and/or product
specifications. The specimen sampling, specimen preparation, and test procedures must rigorously follow
documented specifications. Sample sizes are statistically specified, but reduced levels are often allowed to
control costs once production history is demonstrated to be consistent. Quality control tests usually characterize
a couple of the most critical characteristics that define a product and strive for comparison against historical
values rather than absolute properties. Many QC tests do not measure absolute mechanical properties. For
example, flexural strength and modulus do not in general coincide with the strength and modulus of a material
tested in uniaxial tension.
Design data generation strives to produce absolute property data. The data must represent the actual mechanical
performance of the material under loading conditions like those that will be encountered in service. The tests
used must be capable of measuring the material property desired, and specimen preparation must rigorously
conform to the standards specified in the test methods. Sample sizes must meet the statistical requirements for
A-basis or B-basis design allowables. The number of test-specimen replicates is usually greater than in either of
the two previous types of testing. Also, specimen inspection, test instrument calibration, and test method
execution are very rigorous.
In summary, different testing approaches are appropriate to meet the range of objectives that one may encounter
in materials characterization. The cost of the testing and the time required to generate the results increase with
increasing rigor of the characterization process. In order to strike the proper balance in addressing testing needs,
the test engineer must fully understand the cause-effect relationships of all aspects of the specimen preparation
and testing procedures on the quality and the cost of the results. To that end, this article provides a condensed
yet concise presentation of the key concepts of mechanical characterization of composite materials.
Mechanical Properties of Anisotropic Systems
In order to focus on testing, the authors assume that the reader has an understanding of the various types of
composite material systems and their special characteristics. If background in laminate mechanics is required,
the reader is referred to (Ref 1, 2, 3). Methods for measuring properties of fiber and matrix constituents are not
covered, although it is important that the reader understand the relationship that constituent properties, volume