ASM Metals HandBook Vol. 8 - Mechanical Testing and Evaluation

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• David Lewicki

NASA Glenn Research Center at Lewis Field

• Alan Male

University of Kentucky

• John Makinson

University of Nebraska, Lincoln

• William Mankins

Metallurgical Services, Inc.

• Frank Marsh

Consultant

• Dana Medlin

The Timken Company

• Gary Miller

Allegheny Ludlum Corporation

• Sia Nemat-Nasser

University of California, San Diego

• Robert Neugebauer

Mar-Test, Inc.

• Theodore Nicholas

Air Force Research Laboratory, Wright-Patterson Air Force Base

• William Nix

Stanford University

• Todd M. Osman

U.S. Steel

• Philip Pearson

The Torrington Company

• J. Michael Pereira

NASA Research Center at Lewis Field

• Joy Ransom

Fatigue Technology, Inc.

• Gopal Revankar

Deere & Company

• Clare Rimnac

Case Western Reserve University

• Earl Ruth

Tinius Olsen Testing Machine Company, Inc.

• Ghatu Subhash

Michigan Technological University

• Yuki Sugimura

Harvard University

• Eric Taleff

The University of Texas at Austin

• Ed Tobolski

Wilson Instruments

• George Vander Voort

Buehler Ltd.

• Kenneth S. Vecchio

University of California, San Diego

Foreword

The new edition of ASM Handbook, Volume 8, Mechanical Testing and Evaluation is a substantial update and

revision of the previous volume. This latest edition of Volume 8 contains over 50 new articles, and the scope of

coverage has been broadened to include the mechanical testing of alloys, plastics, ceramics, composites, and

common engineering components such as fasteners, gears, bearings, adhesive joints, and welds. This new scope

is also complemented by substantial updates and additions in the coverage of traditional quasi-static testing,

hardness testing, surface testing, creep deformation, high strain rate testing, fracture toughness, and fatigue

testing.

The efforts of many people are to be commended for creating this useful, comprehensive reference on

mechanical testing. The ASM Handbook Committee, the editors, the authors, the reviewers, and ASM staff

have collaborated to produce a book that meets high technical standards for the benefit of engineering

communities everywhere. To all who contributed to the completion of this task, we extend our sincere thanks.

ASH Khare

President, ASM International

Michael J. DeHaemer

Managing Director, ASM International

Preface

At least three major trends have occurred since the last edition of Volume 8 in 1984. First, concurrent

engineering is growing in importance in the industrial world, and mechanical testing plays a major role in

concurrent engineering through the measurement of properties of product design, as well as for deformation

processing. ASM Handbook, Volume 20, Materials Selection and Design (1997) reflects this focus in

concurrent engineering and the broadening spectrum of involvement of materials engineers. Second, new

methods of measurement have evolved such as strain measurement by vision systems and ultrasonic methods

for measurement of elastic properties. This area will continue to grow as miniaturized sensors and computer

vision technologies mature. Third, computer modeling capabilities, based on fundamental continuum principles

and numerical methods, have entered the mainstream of everyday engineering. The validity of these computer

models depends heavily on the availability of accurate material properties from mechanical testing.

Toward this end, this revision of ASM Handbook, Volume 8 is intended to provide up-to-date, practical

information on mechanical testing for metals, plastics, ceramics, and composites. The first section,

"Introduction to Mechanical Testing and Evaluation," covers the basics of mechanical behavior of engineering

materials and general engineering aspects of mechanical testing including coverage on the accreditation of

testing laboratories, mechanical tests in metalworking operations, and the general mecahnical tests of plastics

and ceramics. The next three sections are organized around the basic modes of loading of materials: tension,

compression bending, shear, and contact loads. The first four modes (tension, compression, bending, and shear)

are the basic simple loading types for deterimation of bulk properties of materials under quasi-statis or dynamic

conditions.

The third section, "Hardness Testing," describes the various methods for indentation tesitng, which is a

relatively inexpensive test of great importance in manufacturing quality control and materials science. This

section includes new coverage on instrumented (nano-indentation) hardness testing and the special issues of

hardness testing of ceramics. Following the section on hardness testing, the fourth section addresses the

mechanical evaulation of surfaces in terms of adhesion and wear characteristics from point loading and contact

loading. These methods, often in conjunction with hardness tests, are used to determine the response of surfaces

and coatings to mechanical loads.

The next four sections cover mechanical testing under important dynamic conditions of slow strain rates (i.e.,

creep deformation and stress relaxation), high strain rate testing, dynamic fracture, and fatigue. These four

sections cover the nuances of testing materials under the basic loading types but with the added dimension of

time as a factor. Very long-term, slow rate of loading (or unloading) in creep and stress relaxation is a key

factor in many high-temperature applications and the testing of viscoelastic materials. On the opposite end of

the spectrum, high strain rate testing characterizes material response during high-speed deformation processes

and dynamic loading of products. Fracture toughness and fatigue testing are the remaining two sections

covering engineering dynamic properties. These sections include coverage on the complex effects of

temperature and environmental degradation on crack growth under cyclic or sustained loads.

Finally, the last section focuses on mechanical testing of some common types of engineering components such

as gears, bearings, welds, adhesive joints, and mechanical fasteners. A detailed article on residual stress

measurements is included, as residual stress from manufacturing operations can be a key factor in some forms

of mechanical performance such as stress corrosion cracking and fatigue life analysis. Coverage of fiber-

reinforced composites is also included as a special product form with many special and unique testing and

evaluation requirements.

In this extensive revision, the end result is over 50 new articles and an all-new Volume 8 of the ASM Handbook

series. As before, the key purpose of this Handbook volume is to explain test set-up, common testing problems

and solutions, and data interpretations so that reasonably knowledgeable, but inexperienced, engineers can

understand the factors that influence proper implementation and interpretation. Easily obtainable and

recognizable standards and research publications are referenced within each article, but every attempt is made

to provide sufficient clarification so that inexperienced readers can understand the reasons and proper

interpretation of published industrial test standards and research publications.

In this effort, we greatly appreciate the knowledgeable guidance and support of all the section editors in

developing content requirements and author recommendations. This new content would not have been possible

without their help: Peter Blau, Oak Ridge National Laboratory; James C. Earthman, University of California,

Irvine; Brian Klotz, General Motors Corporation; Peter K. Liaw, University of Tennessee; Sia Nemat-Nasser,

University of California, San Diego; Todd M. Osman, U.S. Steel Research; Gopal Revankar, Deere &

Company; Robert Ritchie, University of California at Berkeley. Finally, we are all especially indebted to the

volunteer spirit and devotion of all the authors, who have given us their time and effort in putting their expertise

and knowledge on paper for the benefit of others. This work would not have been possible without them.

Howard Kuhn

Concurrent Technologies Corporation

Dana Medlin

The Timken Company

General Information

Officers and Trustees of ASM International (1997 - 1998)

Officers

• Ash Khare, President and Trustee, National Forge Company

• Aziz I. Asphahani, Vice President and Trustee, Carus Chemical Company

• Michael J. DeHaemer, Secretary and Managing Director, ASM International

• Peter R. Strong, Treasurer, Buehler Krautkrämer

• Hans H. Portisch, Immediate Past President, Krupp VDM Austria GmbH

Trustees

• E. Daniel Albrecht, Advanced Ceramics Research, Inc.

• W. Raymond Cribb, Brush Wellman Inc.

• Gordon H. Geiger, University of Arizona-Tucson Office & Consultant, T.P. McNulty & Associates

• Walter M. Griffith, Wright-Patterson Air Force Base

• Jennie S. Hwang, H-Technologies Group Inc.

• C. "Ravi" Ravindran, Ryerson Polytechnic University

• Thomas G. Stoebe, University of Washington

• Robert C. Tucker, Jr., Praxair Surface Technologies, Inc.

• James C. Williams, The Ohio State University

Members of the ASM Handbook Committee (1984–1985)

• Craig V. Darragh

(Chair 1999-; Member 1989-)

The Timken Company

• Bruce P. Bardes (1993-)

Materials Technology Solutions Company

• Rodney R. Boyer (1982-1985; 1995-)

Boeing Commercial Airplane Group

• Toni M. Brugger (1993-)

Carpenter Technology Corporation

• Henry E. Fairman (1993-)

MQS Inspection Inc.

• Michelle Gauthier (1990-)

Raytheon Systems Company

• Larry D. Hanke (1994-)

Materials Evaluation and Engineering Inc.

• Jeffrey A. Hawk (1997-)

U.S. Department of Energy

• Dennis D. Huffman (1982-)

The Timken Company

• S. Jim Ibarra, Jr. (1991-)

Amoco Corporation

• Dwight Janoff (1995-)

FMC Corporation

• Kent L. Johnson (1999-)

Engineering Systems, Inc.

• Paul J. Kovach (1995-)

Stress Engineering Services Inc.

• Peter W. Lee (1990-)

The Timken Company

• Donald R. Lesuer (1999-)

Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory

• Huimin Liu (1999-)

Citation Corporation

• William L. Mankins(1989-)

Metallurgical Services Inc.

• Dana J. Medlin (1998-)

The Timken Company

• Mahi Sahoo (1993-)

CANMET

• Srikanth Raghunathan (1999-)

Nanomat Inc.

• Karl P. Staudhammer (1997-)

Los Alamos National Laboratory

• Kenneth B. Tator (1991-)

KTA-Tator Inc.

• George F. Vander Voort (1997-)

Buehler Ltd.

• Dan Zhao (1996-)

Johnson Controls Inc.

Previous Chairs of the ASM Handbook Committee

• R. J. Austin

(1992–1994) (Member, 1984-)

• L.B. Case

(1931–1933) (Member, 1927–1933)

• T.D. Cooper

(1984-1986) (Member 1981-1986)

• E.O. Dixon

(1952–1954) (Member, 1947–1955)

• R.L. Dowdell

(1938–1939) (Member, 1935–1939)

• M.M. Gauthier

(Chair 1997-1998; Member 1990-)

• J.P. Gill

(1937) (Member, 1934–1937)

• J.D. Graham

(1966–1968) (Member, 1961–1970)

• J.F. Harper

(1923–1926) (Member, 1923–1926)

• C.H. Herty, Jr.

(1934–1936) (Member, 1930–1936)

• D.D. Huffman

(1986-1990) (Member 1982-)

• J.B. Johnson

(1948–1951) (Member, 1944–1951)

• L.J. Korb

(1983) (Member, 1978–1983)

• R.W.E. Leiter

(1962–1963) (Member, 1955–1958, 1960–1964)

• G.V. Luerssen

(1943–1947) (Member, 1942–1947)

• G.N. Maniar

(1979–1980) (Member, 1974–1980)

• W.L. Mankins

(1994-1997) (Member 1989-)

• J.L. McCall

(1982) (Member, 1977–1982)

• W.J. Merten

(1927–1930) (Member, 1923–1933)

• D.L. Olson

(1990-1992) (Member 1982-1988, 1989-1992)

• N.E. Promisel

(1955–1961) (Member, 1954–1963)

• G.J. Shubat

(1973–1975) (Member, 1966–1975)

• W.A. Stadtler

(1969–1972) (Member, 1962–1972)

• R. Ward

(1976–1978) (Member, 1972–1978)

• M.G.H. Wells

(1981) (Member, 1976–1981)

• D.J. Wright

(1964–1965) (Member, 1959–1967)

Staff

ASM International staff who contributed to the development of the Volume included Steven R. Lampman,

Project Editor; Bonnie R. Sanders, Manager of Production; Nancy Hrivnak and Carol Terman, Copy Editors;

Kathleen Dragolich, Production Supervisor; and Candace Mullet and Jill Kinson, Production Coordinators.

Editorial Assistance was provided by Erika Baxter, Kelly Ferjutz, Heather Lampman, Pat Morse, and Mary

Jane Riddlebaugh. The Volume was prepared under the direction of Scott D. Henry, Assistant Director of

Reference Publications and William W. Scott, Jr., Director of Technical Publications.

Conversion to Electronic Files

ASM Handbook, Volume 8, Mechanical Testing and Evaluation was converted to electronic files in 2003. The

conversion was based on the First printing (2000). No substantive changes were made to the content of the

Volume, but some minor corrections and clarifications were made as needed.

ASM International staff who contributed to the conversion of the Volume to electronic files included Sally

Fahrenholz-Mann, Sue Hess, Bonnie Sanders, and Scott Henry. The electronic version was prepared under the

direction of Stanley Theobald, Managing Director.

No part of this book may be reproduced, stored, in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any

means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the written permission of the

First printing, October 2000

This book is a collective effort involving hundreds of technical specialists. It brings together in one book a

wealth of information from world-wide sources to help scientists, engineers, and technicians to solve current

and long-range problems.

Great care is taken in the compilation and production of this volume, but it should be made clear that no

warranties, express or implied, are given in connection with the accuracy or completeness of this publication,

and no responsibility can be taken for any claims that may arise.

Nothing contained in the ASM Handbook shall be construed as a grant of any right of manufacture, sale, use, or

reproduction, in connection with any method, process, apparatus, product, composition, or system, whether or

not covered by letters patent, copyright, or trademark, and nothing contained in the ASM Handbook shall be

construed as a defense against any alleged infringement of letters patent, copyright, or trademark, or as a

defense against any liability for such infringement.

Comments, criticisms, and suggestions are invited, and should be forwarded to ASM International.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data (for Print Volume)

ASM Handbook.

Includes bibliographical references and indexes.

Contents: v. 1. Properties and selection—v. 2. Properties and selection—nonferrous alloys and puremetals—

[etc.]—v. 8. Mechanical testing.

1. Metals—Handbooks, manuals, etc. 2. ASM International. Handbook Committee.

TA459.M43 1990 620.1'6 90-115

SAN 204–7586

ISBN 0-87170-389-0

ASM International

Materials Park, OH 44073-0002

www.asminternational.org

Introduction to the Mechanical Behavior of Metals

Todd M. Osman, U.S. Steel Research; Joseph D. Rigney, General Electric Aircraft Engines

Introduction

THE SUCCESSFUL EMPLOYMENT OF METALS in engineering applications relies on the ability of the

metal to meet design and service requirements and to be fabricated to the proper dimensions. The capability of

a metal to meet these requirements is determined by the mechanical and physical properties of the metal.

Physical properties are those typically measured by methods not requiring the application of an external

mechanical force (or load). Typical examples of physical properties are density, magnetic properties (e.g.,

permeability), thermal conductivity and thermal diffusivity, electrical properties (e.g., resistivity), specific heat,

and coefficient of thermal expansion. Mechanical properties, the primary focus of this Volume, are described as

the relationship between forces (or stresses) acting on a material and the resistance of the material to

deformation (i.e., strains) and fracture. This deformation, however, may or may not be evident in the metal after

the applied load is removed. Different types of tests, which use an applied force, are employed to measure

properties, such as elastic modulus, yield strength, elastic and plastic deformation (i.e., elongation), hardness,

fatigue resistance, and fracture toughness. Typical specimens for these evaluations are shown in Fig. 1.

Fig. 1 Typical specimens for (a) tension testing, (b) notched tension testing, and (c) fracture toughness

testing