ASM Metals HandBook Vol. 14 - Forming and Forging

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Fig. 37 Tooling used for powder forging of the Toyota connecting rod. Source: Ref 93.

The forged rods are subjected to a thermal treatment after forging. This results in a ferrite/pearlite microstructure with a

core hardness of 240 to 300 HV (30 kgf load). Subsequent operations include burr removal, shot peening, straightening,

sizing, magnetic particle inspection, and finish machining.

Savings in material and energy are substantial for the powder forged rods (Ref 9). Billet weight for conventional forging

is 1.2 kg (2.65 lb); the powder forging preform weighs 0.7 kg (1.54 lb) and requires little machining. In addition to the

benefits in process economics, the variability in fatigue performance for the powder forged rods is reported to be half that

of conventionally forged parts (Ref 93).

Ford Motor Company has recently introduced powder forged connecting rods in the 1.9 L four-cylinder engine used in the

Ford Escort and Mercury Lynx models. Ford has also announced plans to use powder forged rods in its modular engine,

which is scheduled for production in 1992 (Ref 94).

References cited in this section

5. P.K. Jones, The Technical and Economic Advantages of Powder Forged Products, Powder Metall.,

Vol 13

(No. 26), 1970, p 114

7. J.W. Wisker and P.K. Jones, The Economics of Powder Forging Relative to Competing Processes--

Present

and Future, Mod. Dev. Powder Metall., Vol 7, 1974, p 33

9. C. Tsumuti and I. Nagare, Application of Powder Forging to Automotive Parts, Met. Powder Rep.,

Vol 39

(No. 11), 1984, p 629

18.

G.T. Brown and J.A. Steed, The Fa

tigue Performance of Some Connecting Rods Made by Powder Forging,

Powder Metall., Vol 16 (No. 32), 1973, p 405

82.

P.K. Johnson, Powder Metallurgy Design Competition Winners, Int. J. Powder Metall.,

Vol 21 (No. 4),

1985, p 303

83.

P.K. Johnson, Winning Parts Show High Strength and Cost Savings, Int. J. Powder Metall.,

Vol 22 (No. 4),

1986, p 267

84.

Method of Making Powdered Metal Parts, U.S. Patent 3,992,763

85.

Method of Making Selectively Carburized Forged Powder Metal Parts, U.S. Patent 4,165,243

86.

Method for Making Powder Metal Forging Preforms of High Strength Ferrous-

Base Alloys, U.S. Patent

4,655,853

87.

R.M. Szary and R. Pathak, Sinta-

Forge an Efficient Production Process for High Fatigue Stress

Components, P/M Technical Conference Proceedings, Hoeganaes Corp., Oct 1978

88.

J.S. Adams and D. Glover, Improved Bearings at Lower Cost via Powder Metallurgy, Met. Prog.,

Aug

1977, p 39

89.

F.G. Hanejko and J. Muzik, Successful Applications and Processing Considerations for Powder Forming,

P/M Technical Conference Proceedings, Hoeganaes Corp., Oct 1978

90.

S. Corso and C. Downey, Preform Design for P/M Hot Formed Connecting Rods, Powder Metall. Int.,

Vol

8 (No. 4), 1976, p 170

91.

C. Tsumuki, J. Niimi, K. Hasimoto, T. Suzuki, T. Inukai, and O. Yo

shihara, Connecting Rods by P/M Hot

Forging, Mod. Dev. Powder Metall., Vol 7, 1974, p 385

92.

H.W. Antes, Processing and Properties of Powder Forgings, in

Powder Metallurgy for High Performance

Applications, Proceedings of the 18th Sagamore Army Materials Research Conference,

Syracuse University

Press, 1972

93.

K. Imahashi, C. Thumuki, and I. Nagare, "Development of Powder Forged Connecting Rods," Technical

Paper 841221, Society of Automotive Engineers, Oct 1984

94.

Powder Forging Boosts PM in Auto Industry, Met. Powder Rep., Vol 42 (No. 7/8), 1987, p 557

Powder Forging

W. Brian James, Michael J. McDermott, and Robert A. Powell, Hoeganaes Corporation

References

1. Ferrous Powder Metallurgy Materials, in Properties and Selection: Irons and Steels, Vol 1, 9th ed.,

Metals

Handbook, American Society for Metals, 1978, p 327

F.T. Lally, I.J. Toth, and J. DiBenedetto, "Forged Metal Powder Products," Final Technical Report

SWERR-TR-72-51, Army Contract DAAF01-70-C-0654, Nov 1971

3. P.W. Lee and H.A. Kuhn, P/M Forging, in Powder Metallurgy, Vol 7, 9th ed., Metals Handbook,

American Society for Metals, 1984, p 410

4. G. Bockstiegel, Powder Forging--

Development of the Technology and Its Acceptance in North America,

Japan, and West Europe, in Powder Metallurgy 1986--State of the Art,

Vol 2, Powder Metallurgy in

Science and Practical Technology series, Verlag Schmid, 1986, p 239

5. P.K. Jones, The Technical and Economic Advantages of Powder Forged Products, Powder Metall.,

Vol 13

(No. 26), 1970, p 114

6. G. Bockstiegel, Some Technical and Economic Aspects of P/M-Hot-Forming, Mod. Dev. Powder Metall.,

Vol 7, 1974, p 91

7. J.W. Wisker and P.K. Jones, The Economics of Powder Forging Relative to Competing Processes--

Present

and Future, Mod. Dev. Powder Metall., Vol 7, 1974, p 33

8. W.J. Huppmann and M. Hirschvogel, Powder Forging, Review 233, Int. Met. Rev., (No. 5), 1978, p 209

9. C. Tsumuti and I. Nagare, Application of Powder Forging to Automotive Parts, Met. Powder Rep.,

Vol 39

(No. 11), 1984, p 629

10. C. Durdaller, "Powders for Forging," Technical Bulletin D211, Hoeganaes Corporation, Oct 1971

11. R.T. Cundill, E. Marsh, and K.A. Ridal, Mechanical Properties of Sinter/Forged Low-

Alloy Steels,

Powder Metall., Vol 13 (No. 26), 1970, p 165

12. P.C. Eloff and

S.M. Kaufman, Hardenability Considerations in the Sintering of Low Alloy Iron Powder

Preforms, Powder Metall. Int., Vol 3 (No. 2), 1971, p 71

13.

K.H. Moyer, The Effect of Sintering Temperature (Homogenization) on the Hot Formed Properties of

Prealloyed and Admixed Elemental Ni-Mo Steel Powders, Prog. Powder Metall., Vol 30, 1974, p 193

14. G.T. Brown, Development of Alloy Systems for Powder Forging, Met. Technol., Vol 3, May-

June 1976, p

229

15. G.T. Brown, "The Past, Present and Future of Powder Forgin

g With Particular Reference to Ferrous

Materials," Technical Paper 800304, Society for Automotive Engineers, 1980

16.

R. Koos and G. Bockstiegel, The Influence of Heat Treatment, Inclusions and Porosity on the

Machinability of Powder Forged Steel, Prog. Powder Metall., Vol 37, 1981, p 145

17. B.L. Ferguson, H.A. Kuhn, and A. Lawley, Fatigue of Iron Base P/M Forgings, Mod. Dev.

Powder

Metall., Vol 9, 1977, p 51

18.

G.T. Brown and J.A. Steed, The Fatigue Performance of Some Connecting Rods Made by Powder

Forging, Powder Metall., Vol 16 (No. 32), 1973, p 405

19.

W.B. James, The Use of Image Analysis for Assessing the Inclusion Content of Low Alloy Steel Powders

for Forging Applications, in Practical Applications of Quantitative Metallography, STP 839, Ameri

can

Society for Testing and Materials, 1984, p 132

20. R. Causton, T.F. Murphy, C-A. Blande, and H. Soderhjelm, Non-

Metallic Inclusion Measurement of

Powder Forged Steels Using an Automatic Image Analysis System, in Horizons of Powder Metallurgy,

Part II, Verlag Schmid, 1986, p 727

21.

W.B. James, "Quality Assurance Procedures for Powder Forged Materials," Technical Paper 830364,

Society of Automotive Engineers, 1983

22. W.B. James, Automated Counting of Inclusions in Powder Forged Steels, Mod. Dev. Powder Metall.,

Vol

14, 1981, p 541

23.

J.A. Steed, The Effects of Iron Powder Contamination on the Properties of Powder Forged Low Alloy

Steel, Powder Metall., Vol 18 (No. 35), 1975, p 201

24. N. Dautzenberg and H.T. Dorweiler, Effect of Contamination by Pl

ain Iron Powder Particles on the

Properties of Hot Forged Steels Made from Prealloyed Powders,

P/M '82 in Europe, International Powder

Metallurgy Conference Proceedings, 1982, p 381

25. G. Bockstiegel, E. Dittrich, and H. Cremer, Experiences With an Autom

atic Powder Forging Line, in

Proceedings of the Fifth European Symposium on Powder Metallurgy, Vol 1, 1978, p 32

26. W.B. James, New Shaping Methods for P/M Components, in Powder Metallurgy 1986--State of the Art,

Vol 2, Powder Metallurgy in Science and Practical Technology series, Verlag Schmid GmbH, 1986, p 71

27. H.A. Kuhn, S. Pillay, and H. Chung, Computer-Aided Preform Design for Powder Forging,

Mod. Dev.

Powder Metall., Vol 12, 1981, p 643

28. S. Pillay and H.A. Kuhn, "Computerized Powder Metallurg

y (P/M) Forging Techniques," Final Technical

Report AD-A090 043, Rock Island Arsenal, Sept 1980

29. S. Pillay, "Computer-

Aided Design of Preforms for Powder Forging," Ph.D. thesis, University of

Pittsburgh, 1980

30. H.A. Kuhn and B.L. Ferguson, An Expert Systems Approach to Preform Design for Powder Forging,

Met.

Powder Rep., Vol 40 (No. 2), 1985, p 93

31. C.L. Downey and H.A. Kuhn, Designing P/M Preforms for Forging Axisymmetric Parts,

Int. J. Powder

Metall., Vol 11 (No. 4), 1975, p 255

32. P.J. Guichelaar and R.D. Pehlke, Gas Metal Reactions During Induction Sintering, in

1971 Fall Powder

Metallurgy Conference Proceedings, Metal Powder Industries Federation, 1972, p 109

33. J.H. Hoffmann and C.L. Downey, A Comparison of the Energy Requirements for Con

ventional and

Induction Sintering, Mod. Dev. Powder Metall., Vol 9, 1977, p 301

34. R.F. Halter, Recent Advances in the Hot Forming of P/M Preforms, Mod. Dev. Powder Metall.,

Vol 7,

1974, p 137

35. J.E. Comstock, How to Pick a Hot-Forging Lubricant, Am. Mach., Oct 1981, p 141

36.

T. Tabata, S. Masaki, and K. Hosokawa, A Compression Test to Determine the Coefficient of Friction in

Forging P/M Preforms, Int. J. Powder Metall., Vol 16 (No. 2), 1980, p 149

37. M. Stromgren and R. Koos, Hoganas' Contribution to Powder Forging Developments, Met. Powder Rep.,

Vol 38 (No. 2), 1983, p 69

38.

T. Altan, "Characteristics and Applications of Various Types of Forging Equipment, Technical Report

MFR72-02, Society of Manufacturing Engineers

39. J.W. Spretnak, "Technical Notes on Forging," Forging Industry Educational and Research Foundation

40. Forging Design Handbook, American Society for Metals, 1972

41. J.E. Jenson, Ed., Forging Industry Handbook, Forging Industry Association, 1970

42. S. Mocarski and P.C. Eloff, Equipment Considerations for Forging Powder Preforms,

Int. J. Powder

Metall., Vol 7 (No. 2), 1971, p 15

43. G. Bockstiegel and M. Stromgren, "Hoganas Automatic PM-

Forging System, Concept and Application,

Technical Paper 790191, Society of Automotive Engineers, 1979

44. H.A. Kuhn, Deformation Processing of Sintered Powder Materials, in Powder Metallurgy Processing--

New Techniques and Analyses, Academic Press, 1978, p 99

45. H.A. Kuhn, M.M. Hagerty, H.L. Gaigher, and A. Lawley, Deformation Characteristics of Iron-

Powder

Compacts, Mod. Dev. Powder Metall., Vol 4, 1971, p 463

46.

H.A. Kuhn and C.L. Downey, "Deformation Characteristics and Plasticity Theory of Sintered Powder

Materials," Int. J. Powder Metall., Vol 7 (No. 1), 1971, p 15

47. H.A. Kuhn, Fundamental Principles of Powder Preform Forging, in

Powder Metallurgy for High

Performance Applications, Proceedings of the 18th Sagamore Army Materials Research Conference,

Syracuse University Press, 1972, p 153

48. H.A. Kuhn and C.L. Downey, How Flow and Fr

acture Affect Design of Preforms for Powder Forging,

Powder Metall. Powder Technol., Vol 10 (No. 1), 1974, p 59

49. F.G. Hanejko, P/M Hot Forming, Fundamentals and Properties, Prog. Powder Metall., Vol 33, 1977, p 5

50. H.F. Fischmeister, B. Aren, and K.

E. Easterling, Deformation and Densification of Porous Preforms in Hot

Forging, Powder Metall., Vol 14 (No. 27), 1971, p 144

51.

G. Bockstiegel and U. Bjork, The Influence of Preform Shape on Material Flow, Residual Porosity, and

Occurrence of Flaws in Hot-Forged Powder Compacts, Powder Metall., Vol 17 (No. 33), 1974, p 126

52.

M. Watanabe, Y. Awano, A. Danno, S. Onoda, and T. Kimura, Deformation and Densification of P/M

Forging Preforms, Int. J. Powder Metall., Vol 14 (No. 3), 1978, p 183

53. G. Sjoberg, Material Flow and Cracking in Powder Forging, Powder Metall. Int., Vol 7 (No. 1), 1975, p 30

54. H.L. Gaigher and A. Lawley, Structural Changes During the Densification of P/M Preforms,

Powder

Metall. Powder Technol., Vol 10 (No. 1), 1974, p 21

55. P.W. Lee and H.A. Kuhn, Fracture in Cold Upset Forging--A Criterion and Model, Metall. Trans.,

Vol 4,

April 1973, p 969

56.

C.L. Downey and H.A. Kuhn, Application of a Forming Limit Concept to the Design of Powder Preforms

for Forging, J. Eng. Mater. Technol. (ASME Series H), Vol 97 (No. 4), 1975, p 121

57. S.K. Suh, "Prevention of Defects in Powder Forging," Ph.D. thesis, Drexel University, 1976

58. S.K. Suh and H.A. Kuhn, Three Fracture Modes and Their Prevention in Forming P/M Preforms,

Mod.

Dev. Powder Metall., Vol 9, 1977, p 407

59. C.L. Downey, "Powder Preform Forging--

An Analytical and Experimental Approach to Process Design,"

Ph.D. thesis, Drexel University, 1972

60. B.L. Ferguson, "P/M Forging of Components for Army Applications," Tri-Service Manu

facturing

Technology Advisory Group Program Status Review, 1979, p F1

61.

M. Stromgren and M. Lochon, Development and Fatigue Testing of a Powder Pinion Gear for a Passenger

Car Gear Box, Mod. Dev. Powder Metall., Vol 15, 1985, p 655

62. W.J. Huppmann, Forces During Forging of Iron Powder Preforms, Int. J. Powder Metall.,

Vol 12 (No. 4),

1976, p 275

63.

Y. Nilsson, O. Grinder, C.Y. Jia, and Q. Jiazhong, "Hot Repressing of Sintered Steel Properties," STU

498, The Swedish Institute for Metals Research, 1985

64. O. Grinder, C.Y. Jia, and Y. Nilsson, Hot Upsetting and Hot Repressing of Sintered Steel Preforms,

Mod.

Dev. Powder Metall., Vol 15, 1984, p 611

65.

Q. Jiazhong, O. Grinder, and Y. Nilsson, Mechanical Properties of Low Temperature Powder Forged

Steel, in Horizons of Powder Metallurgy, Part II, Verlag Schmid, 1986, p 653

66. G. Bockstiegel and H. Olsen, Processing Parameters in the Hot Forming of Powder Preforms, in

Powder

Metallurgy, Third European Powder Metallurgy Symposium, Conference Supplement Part 1, 1971, p 127

67. Surface Roughness Averages for Common Production Methods, Met. Prog., July 1980, p 51

68. R. Koos, G. Bockstiegel, and C. Muhren, "Machining Studies of PM-

Forged Materials," Technical Paper

790192, Society of Automotive Engineers, 1979

69. U. Engstrom, Machinability of Sintered Steels, Powder Metall., Vol 26 (No. 3), 1983, p 137

70. F.G. Hanejko, Mechanical Property Anisotropy of P/M Hot Formed Materials, Mod. Dev. Powder Metall.,

Vol 10, 1977, p 73

71. Closed-Die Steel Forgings, in Properties and Selection: Irons and Steels, Vol 1, 9th ed.,

Metals

Handbook, American Society for Metals, 1978, p 357

72.

G.T. Brown, The Core Properties of a Range of Powder Forged Steels for Carburizing Applications,

Powder Metall., Vol 20 (No. 3), 1977, p 171

73.

G.T. Brown and T.B. Smith, The Relevance of Traditional Materials Specifications to Powder Metal

Products, Mod. Dev. Powder Metall., Vol 7, 1974, p 9

74. G.T. Brown, Properties and Prospects of Powder Forged Low Alloy Steels Related to

Component

Production, in Powder Metallurgy: Promises and Problems, Société Française de Métallurgie--

Matériaux

et Techniques, 1975, p 96

75. W.J. Huppmann and G.T. Brown, The Steel Powder Forging Process--A General Review, Powder Metall.,

Vol 21 (No. 2), 1978, p 105

76. "GKN Powder Forging Materials Specification and Properties," Issue 2, GKN PowderMet, April 1978

77. D. Glover, A Ball/Rod Rolling Contact Fatigue Tester, in

Rolling Contact Fatigue Testing of Bearing

Steels, STP 771, J. Hoo, Ed., 1982, p 107

78. S. Buzolits, "Military Process Specification for Type 46XX Powder-

Forged Weapon Components," Final

Technical Report AD-E401-376, U.S. Army Armament Research and Development Center, Aug 20, 1985

79. S. Buzolits and T. Leister, "Military Specification for Type 10XX Powder-

Forged Weapon Components,"

Final Technical Report AD-E401-

412, U.S. Army Armament Research and Development Center, Oct 14,

1985

80. Brochure, Powder Forging Division, GKN PowderMet, 1982

81. P. Lindskog and S. Grek, Reduction of Oxide Inclusions in Powder Preforms Prior to Hot Forming,

Mod.

Dev. Powder Metall., Vol 7, 1974, p 285

82. P.K. Johnson, Powder Metallurgy Design Competition Winners, Int. J. Powder Metall.,

Vol 21 (No. 4),

1985, p 303

83. P.K. Johnson, Winning Parts Show High Strength and Cost Savings, Int. J. Powder Metall.,

Vol 22 (No.

4), 1986, p 267

84. Method of Making Powdered Metal Parts, U.S. Patent 3,992,763

85. Method of Making Selectively Carburized Forged Powder Metal Parts, U.S. Patent 4,165,243

86. Method for Making Powder Metal Forging Preforms of High Strength Ferrous-

Base Alloys, U.S. Patent

4,655,853

87. R.M. Szary and R. Pathak, Sinta-

Forge an Efficient Production Process for High Fatigue Stress

Components, P/M Technical Conference Proceedings, Hoeganaes Corp., Oct 1978

88. J.S. Adams and D. Glover, Improved Bearings at Lower Cost via Powder Metallurgy, Met. Prog.,

Aug

1977, p 39

89.

F.G. Hanejko and J. Muzik, Successful Applications and Processing Considerations for Powder Forming,

P/M Technical Conference Proceedings, Hoeganaes Corp., Oct 1978

90. S. Corso and C. Downey, Preform Design for P/M Hot Formed Connecting Rods, Powder Metall. Int.,

Vol

8 (No. 4), 1976, p 170

91. C. Tsumuki, J. Niimi, K. Hasimoto, T. Suzuki, T. Inukai, and O. Yoshihara,

Connecting Rods by P/M Hot

Forging, Mod. Dev. Powder Metall., Vol 7, 1974, p 385

92. H.W. Antes, Processing and Properties of Powder Forgings, in

Powder Metallurgy for High Performance

Applications, Proceedings of the 18th Sagamore Army Materials Research Conference,

Syracuse

University Press, 1972

93.

K. Imahashi, C. Thumuki, and I. Nagare, "Development of Powder Forged Connecting Rods," Technical

Paper 841221, Society of Automotive Engineers, Oct 1984

94. Powder Forging Boosts PM in Auto Industry, Met. Powder Rep., Vol 42 (No. 7/8), 1987, p 557

Powder Forging

W. Brian James, Michael J. McDermott, and Robert A. Powell, Hoeganaes Corporation

Selected References

• H.W. Antes, Cold Forging Iron and Steel Powder Preforms, Mod. Dev. Powder Metall., Vol 4, 1971, p 415

• H.W. Antes, P/M Hot Formed Gears, Met. Eng. Q., Nov 1974, p 8

• H.W. Antes and P.L. Stockl, The Effect of Deformation on Tensile and Impact Properties of Hot PM-

Formed Nickel-Molybdenum Steels, Powder Metall., Vol 17 (No. 33), 1974, p 178

• B.G.A. Aren, Optimizing the Preform Shape in Powder Forging a Linear Gear Profile, Powder Metall. Int.,

Vol 7 (No. 1), 1975, p 12

•

B.G.A. Aren, L. Olsson, and H.F. Fischmeister, The Influence of Presintering and Forging Temperature in

Powder Forging, Powder Metall. Int., Vol 4 (No. 3), 1972, p 1

• A.J. Ashley, P/M Forging Successes, Met. Powder Rep., Vol 32 (No. 9), 1977, p 339

•

F.A. Badia, F.W. Heck, and J.H. Tundermann, Effect of Compositional and Processing Variations on the

Properties of Hot Formed Mixed Elemental P/M Ni Steels, Mod. Dev. Powder Metall., Vol 7, 1974, p 255

• F.L. Bastian and J.A. Charles, Fracture Resistance of Some Powder Forged Steels, Powder Metall.,

Vol 21

(No. 4), 1978, p 199

• G. Bockstiegel and C-A. Blande, The Influence o

f Slag Inclusions and Pores on Impact Strength and

Fatigue Strength of Powder Forged Iron and Steel, Powder Metall. Int., Vol 8 (No. 4), 1976, p 155

• P. Bosse, R. Tremblay, and R. Angers, Hot-Pressing of Iron Powder and Preforms, Int. J. Powder Metall.,

Vol 11 (No. 4), 1975, p 247

•

W.J. Bratina, W.F. Fossen, D.R. Hollingberry, and R.M. Pilliar, Anisotropic Properties of Powder Forged

Ferrous Systems, Mod. Dev. Powder Metall., Vol 10, 1977, p 157

• G.T. Brown, Properties of Structural Powder Metal Parts--Over-Rated or Under-Estimated?,

Powder

Metall., Vol 17 (No. 33), 1974, p 103

• G.T. Brown, Powder Forging: A Perspective, Int. J. Powder Metall., Vol 21 (No. 3), 1985, p 193

• G.T. Brown, The History of Powder Forging, Met. Powder Rep., Vol 41 (No. 1), 1986, p 54

•

J.P. Cook, "Oxidation, Reduction and Decarburization of Metal Powder Preforms," P/M Hot Forming

Technical Data, Hoeganaes Corporation, 1972

• J.P. Cook, "The Effect of Sintering Temperature and Flow on the Properties of Ni-

Mo Steel Hot P/M

Formed Material," Technical Paper 740982, Society of Automotive Engineers, 1974

• S. Corso and V. Giordano, Development of Differential Pinion Gear by PM Hot Forging Process,

Powder

Metall., Vol 20 (No. 3), 1977, p 158

• A. Crowson, Surface Porosity in P/M Steel Forgings, Prog. Powder Metall., Vol 34 and 35, 1978-

1979, p

261

• G.W. Cull, Mechanical and Metallurgical Properties of Powder Forgings, Powder Metall.,

Vol 13 (No. 26),

1970, p 156

• G.W. Cull, Some Practical Aspects of the Sinter-Forging Process, Metall. Met. Forming, April 1972, p 123

• R.T. Cundill, Relationships Between Oxides, Density and Porosity in Consolidated Steel Powders, in

P/M

'82 in Europe, International Powder Metallurgy Conference Proceedings, 1982, p 145

• R. Davies and M. Negm, The Effects of Some Process Variables on the As-Forged Properties of a Powder-

Forged Ni-Mo Alloy Steel, Powder Metall., Vol 20 (No. 1), 1977, p 39

•

B. Dogan and T.J. Davies, The Effects of Inclusions on the Fracture Behavior of Powder Forged Steels,

Powder Metall.Int., Vol 15 (No. 1), 1983, p 11

• S.J. Donachie, Low Flow Stress Hot Forming of Ferrite, Mod. Dev. Powder Metall., Vol 7, 1974, p 341

•

S.J. Donachie and N.L. Church, Effect of Composition, Temperature and Crystal Structure of the Flow

Stress of P/M Forged Preforms, Int. J. Powder Metall., Vol 10 (No. 1), 1974, p 33

• R.J. Dower and W.E. Campbell, The Toughness of P/M Forgings as a Function of Processing Route,

Mod.

Dev. Powder Metall., Vol 10, 1977, p 53

• C.L. Downey and R.F. Halter, Design Criterion for P/M Hot Forming Dies, Prog. Powder Metall.,

Vol 33,

1977, p 31

• P.C. Eloff and L.E. Wilcox, Fatigue Behavior of Hot Formed Powder Differential Pinions,

Mod. Dev.

Powder Metall., Vol 7, 1974, p 213

• B.L. Ferguson, Ferrous Powder Metallurgy: Part II, Fully Dense Parts and Their Applications, in

Powder

Metallurgy--Applications, Advantages and Limitations,

E. Klar, Ed., American Society for Metals, 1983, p

• B.L. Ferguson, S.K. Suh, and A. Lawley, Impact Behavior of P/M Steel Forgings, Int. J. Powder Metall.,

Vol 11 (No. 4), 1975, p 263

•

H.F. Fischmeister, L. Olsson, and K.E. Easterling, Powder Metallurgy Review 6, Powder Forging, Powder

Metall. Int., Vol 6 (No. 1), 1974, p 30

• H.F. Fischmeister, G. Sjoberg, B.O. Elfstrom, K. Hamber

g, and V. Mironov, Preform Ductility and

Transient Cracking in Powder Forging, Mod. Dev. Powder Metall., Vol 9, 1977, p 437

• J.R. Gleixner, Hot Forming P/M Parts, Met. Prog., Dec 1983, p 33

• S-E. Grek and R. Koos, Surface Oxides on Low Alloy Atomized P

owders and Their Influence on Impact

Properties of P/F Steels, in P/M '82 in Europe, International Powder Metallurgy Conference Proceedings,

1982, p 393

• R.F. Halter, Pilot Production System for Hot Forging P/M Preforms, Mod. Dev. Powder Metall.,

Vol 4,

1971, p 385

•

F. Hanejko, "AISI 4000 Transverse and Longitudinal Impact Properties as a Function of Sintering

Temperature and Deformation," Technical Paper 750951, Society of Automotive Engineers, 1975

• R.H. Hoefs, The Present Status of P/M Forging, Parts 1 and 2, Precision Metal,

May 1973, p 55, and June

1973, p 65

•

G. Hoffmann, and K. Dalal, Correlation Between Individual Mechanical Properties and Fracture Analysis

of Hot Formed P/M Steels, Mod. Dev. Powder Metall., Vol 10, 1977, p 171

• W.J. Huppmann, The Effect of Powder Characteristics on the Sinter-Forging Process, Powder Metall.,

Vol

20 (No. 1), 1977, p 36

• W.J. Huppmann and L. Albano-Muller, Production of Powder Forged Parts of Complex Geometry,

Mod.

Dev. Powder Metall., Vol 12, 1981, p 631

• Y. Ishimaru, T. Yamaguchi, Y. Saito, and Y. Nishino, Properties of Forged PM Ferrous Alloys,

Powder

Metall. Int., Vol 3, 1971, p 126

• W.B. James, Current Trends in Powder Forging Technology, Met. Powder Rep.,

Vol 37 (No. 5), 1982, p

252, and Vol 37 (No. 6), 1982, p 291

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Forging of Carbon and Alloy Steels

Introduction

CARBON AND ALLOY STEELS are by far the most commonly forged materials, and are readily forged into a wide

variety of shapes using hot-, warm-, or cold-forging processes and standard equipment (see the Sections "Forging

Processes" and "Forging Equipment and Dies" in this Volume). Despite the large number of available compositions, all of

the materials in this category exhibit essentially similar forging characteristics. Exceptions to this are steels containing

free-machining additives such as sulfides; these materials are more difficult to forge than are nonfree machining grades.

Generally, the hot forgeability of carbon and alloy steels improves as deformation rate increases. The improvement in

workability has been primarily attributed to the increased heat of deformation generated at high deformation rates.

Selection of forging temperatures for carbon and alloy steels is based on carbon content, alloy composition, the

temperature range for optimum plasticity, and the amount of reduction required to forge the workpiece. Of these factors,

carbon content has the most influence on upper-limit forging temperatures. Table 1 lists the typical hot forging

temperatures for a variety of carbon and alloy steels; it can be seen that, in general, forging temperatures decrease with

increasing carbon and alloy content.

Table 1 Typical forging temperatures for various carbon and alloy steels

Typical forging temperature

Steel

Major alloying elements

°C °F

Carbon steels

1010

. . . 1315 2400

1015

. . . 1315 2400

1020

. . . 1290 2350

1030

. . . 1290 2350

1040

. . . 1260 2300

1050

. . . 1260 2300

1060

. . . 1180 2160

1070

. . . 1150 2100

1080

. . . 1205 2200