API RP 2A-WSD-2007 Recommended Practice for Planning, Designing and Constructing Fixed Offshore Platforms-Working Stress Design

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RECOMMENDED PRACTICE FOR PLANNING, DESIGNING AND CONSTRUCTING FIXED OFFSHORE PLATFORMS—WORKING STRESS DESIGN 29

Table 2.3.4-2—Guideline Extreme Wave, Current, and Storm Tide Values*

for Twenty Areas in United States Waters

(Water depth > 300 ft. [91 m] except as noted)

, kt H

, ft. SX, ft.

“Open

Shelf” Range

“Open

Shelf” Range Range

“Open

Shelf” Range Quality

1. Gulf of Mexico (N of 27° N & W of 86° W) (See Section 2.3.4c for L-1, L-2, and L-3 criteria)

2. Gulf of Mexico (E of 86° W) 2 (1–3) 70 (60–80)

–

3 (2–5) 2

3. Southern California

(Santa Barbara & San Pedro Ch)

2 (1–3) 45 (35–55)

–

6 (5–7) 1

4. California Bank 2 (1–3) 60 (50–65)

–

5 (4–6) 2

5. Central California 2 (1–3) 60 (50–70)

–

7 (6–8) 2

6. Washington/Oregon 2 (1–4) 85 (70–100)

–

8 (7–10) 3

7. Gulf of Alaska (Icy Bay) 3 (2–4) 100 (90–120)

–

11 (10–13) 2

8. Gulf of Alaska (Kodiak) 3 (2–4) 90 (80–110)

–

10 (9–12) 2

9. Lower Cook Inlet 4 (3–6) 60 (45–70)

–

16 (13–20) 2

10. Northern Aleutian Shelf (6–12) 3 (2–4) 70 (60–90)

–

8 (6–12) 1

11. St. George Basin 3 (2–4) 85 (75–95)

–

5 (3–7) 1

12. Navarin Basin 2 (1–3) 85 (75–95)

–

4 (3–5) 1

13. Norton Sound (d = 60 ft.) 3 (1–4) 45 (35–50)

–

11 (8–14) 2

14. Chukchi Sea (d > 60 ft.) 2 (1–3) 50 (40–60)

–

6 (4–8) 3

15. Chukchi Sea (d < 60 ft.) 3 (2–5) 0.78 (d + X) ** 9 (6–12) 3

16. Beaufort Sea (d > 50 ft.) 2 (1–3) 40 (35–50)

–

4 (2–7) 2

17. Beaufort Sea (d < 50 ft.) 4 (3–6) 0.78 (d + X) ** 8 ([–2}–12) 2

18. Georges Bank 2 (1–3) 85 (75–95)

–

5 (4–6) 2

19. Baltimore Canyon 3 (2–4) 90 (80–100)

–

5 (4–6) 2

20. Georgia Embayment 5 (2–8) 75 (65–85)

–

5 (3–7) 2

= inline current at storm water level.

= 100-year maximum individual wave height.

S = deep water wave steepness from linear theory = (2

)/(gT

g = acceleration of gravity.

= zero-crossing period associated with H

, which can be calculated from S.

X = storm tide (Section 1.3.4) associated with H

(mean higher high water plus storm surge).

d = datum water depth.

Quality

1 = based on comprehensive hindcast study verified with measurements.

2 = based on limited hindcasts and/or measurements.

3 = preliminary guide.

* Wind speeds, significant wave height, and spectral peak period associated with H

are discussed in Sections 2.3.4e.1 and 2.3.4e.2.

** Use the same range for T

as in deeper water.

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2. Marine Growth. For many of the areas in table 2.3.4-2

the thickness can be much greater than the 1.5 inch guideline

value for the Gulf of Mexico. For example, offshore Southern

and Central California thicknesses of 8 inches are common.

Site specific studies should be conducted to establish the

thickness variation vs. depth.

Structural members can be considered hydrodynamically

smooth if they are either above MHHW or deep enough

where marine growth might be light enough to ignore the

effect of roughness. However, caution should be used

because it takes very little roughness to cause a C

of 1.05

(see Commentary, Section C2.3.1b.7 for relationship of C

relative roughness). Site specific data should be used to estab-

lish the extent of the hydrodynamically rough zones; other-

wise the structural members should be considered rough

down to the mudline.

3. Elevation of Underside of Deck. Deck elevations should

satisfy all requirements of 2.3.4g. Crest heights should be

based on the guideline omnidirectional wave heights, wave

periods, and storm tide given in Table 2.3.4-2, and calculated

using an appropriate wave theory as discussed in 2.3.1b.2.

2.3.4.g Deck Clearance

Large forces result when waves strike a platform’s deck

and equipment. To avoid this, the bottom of the lowest deck

should be located at an elevation which will clear the calcu-

lated crest of the design wave with adequate allowance for

safety. Omnidirectional guideline wave heights with a nom-

inal return period of 100 years, together with the applicable

wave theories and wave steepnesses should be used to com-

pute wave crest elevations above storm water level, includ-

ing guideline storm tide. A safety margin, or air gap, of at

least 5 feet should be added to the crest elevation to allow

for platform settlement, water depth uncertainty, and for the

possibility of extreme waves in order to determine the mini-

mum acceptable elevation of the bottom beam of the lowest

deck to avoid waves striking the deck. An additional air gap

should be provided for any known or predicted long term

seafloor subsidence.

In general, no platform components, piping or equipment

should be located below the lower deck in the designated air

gap. However, when it is unavoidable to position such items

as minor subcellars, sumps, drains or production piping in the

air gap, provisions should be made for the wave forces devel-

oped on these items. These wave forces may be calculated

using the crest pressure of the design wave applied against

the projected area. These forces may be considered on a

“local” basis in the design of the item. These provisions do

not apply to vertical members such as deck legs, conductors,

risers, etc., which normally penetrate the air gap.

Table 2.3.4-3—Guideline Extreme Wind Speeds* for

Twenty Areas in United States Waters

Wind with

Extreme

Waves,

mph (m/s)

Wind

Alone,

mph (m/s)

1. Gulf of Mexico

(N of 27° N & W of 86° W)

92 (41) 97 (43)

2. Gulf of Mexico (E of 86° W) 98 (44) 109 (49)

3. Southern California

(Santa Barbara and San Pedro

Channels)

58 (26) 69 (31)

4. California Outer Bank 58 (26) 69 (31)

5. Central California 69 (31) 81 (36)

6. Washington/Oregon 69 (31) 92 (41)

7. Gulf of Alaska (Icy Bay) 69 (31) 104 (46)

8. Gulf of Alaska (Kodiak) 69 (31) 104 (46)

9. Lower Cook Inlet 69 (31) 104 (46)

10. North Aleutian Shelf 69 (31) 104 (46)

11. St. George Basin 69 (31) 104 (46)

12. Navarin Basin 69 (31) 104 (46)

13. Norton Sound (d = 90 ft.) 69 (31) 104 (46)

(d = 27 m)

14. Chukchi Sea (d > 60 ft.) 69 (31) 92 (41)

(d > 18 m)

15. Chukchi Sea (d < 60 ft.) 69 (31) 92 (41)

(d < 18 m)

16. Beaufort Sea (d > 50 ft.) 69 (31) 81 (36)

(d > 15 m)

17. Beaufort Sea (d < 50 ft.) 69 (31) 81 (36)

(d < 15 m)

18. Georges Bank 69 (31) 104 (41)

19. Baltimore Canyon 104 (46) 115 (51)

20. Georgia Embayment 104 (46) 115 (51)

*Reference one-hour average speed (± 10%) at 33 feet (10 meters)

elevation.

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RECOMMENDED PRACTICE FOR PLANNING, DESIGNING AND CONSTRUCTING FIXED OFFSHORE PLATFORMS—WORKING STRESS DESIGN 31

2.3.4.h References

The following list of references represents some studies of

wave conditions used to support values in Tables 2.3.4-1 and

2.3.4-2 and Sections 2.3.4.c and 2.3.4.e. Although some of

these studies are proprietary cooperative studies, all may be

obtained. Additionally, numerous other studies have been

made by individual companies for specific locations within

these areas.

Gulf of Mexico

“Consequence-Based Criteria for the Gulf of Mexico: Philos-

ophy & Results,” E. G. Ward, G. C. Lee, D. L. Botelho, J. W.

Turner, F. Dyhrkopp, and R. A. Hall, Offshore Technology

Conference, OTC Paper 11885, May 2000.

“Consequence-Based Criteria for the Gulf of Mexico: Devel-

opment and Calibration of Criteria,” E. G. Ward, G. C. Lee, D.

L. Botelho, J. W. Turner, F. Dyhrkopp, and R. A. Hall, Off-

shore Technology Conference, OTC Paper 11886, May 2000.

“Gulf of Mexico Hurricane Wave Heights,” R. G. Bea, Off-

shore Technology Conference, OTC Paper 2110, 1974.

“An Environmental Design Study for the Eastern Gulf of

Mexico Outer Continental Shelf,” Evans-Hamilton, Inc.,

1973.

“Gulf of Mexico Rare Wave Return Periods,” R. E. Haring

and J. C. Heideman, Journal of Petroleum Technology, Janu-

ary, 1980.

“Statistics of Hurricane Waves in the Gulf of Mexico,” E. G.

Ward, L. E. Borgman, and V. J. Cardone, Journal of Petro-

leum Technology, May 1979.

“Wind and Wave Model for Hurricane Wave Spectra Hind-

casting,” M. M. Kolpak. Offshore Technology Conference,

OTC Paper 2850, 1977.

“Texas Shelf Hurricane Hindcast Study,” ARCTEC and Off-

shore and Coastal Technologies, Inc., 1985.

“GUMSHOE, Gulf of Mexico Storm Hindcast of Oceano-

graphic Extremes,” August, 1990.

West Coast

“Santa Barbara Channel Wave Hindcast Study,” Ocean-

weather, Inc., 1982.

“An Environmental Study for the Southern California Outer

Continental Shelf,” Evans-Hamilton, 1976.

“Storm Wave Study, Santa Barbara Channel,” Oceanographic

Services, Inc., 1969.

“Informal Final Report—Pt. Conception Area, Hindcast

Study,” Oceanweather, Inc., 1980.

“Final Report—Wave Hindcast Pt. Conception Area, North-

west Type Storms, “Oceanweather, Inc., 1982.

Gulf of Alaska

“Group Oceanographic Survey—Gulf of Alaska,” Marine

Advisors, Inc., 1970.

“Gulf of Alaska Wave and Wind Measurement Program,”

Intersea Research Corporation, 1974–1976.

“A Data Collection, Analysis, and Simulation Program to

Investigate Ocean Currents, Northeast Gulf of Alaska,”

Intersea Research Corporation, 1975.

“Climatic Atlas of the Outer Continental Shelf Waters and

Coastal Regions of Alaska, Vol, I, Gulf of Alaska,” W. A.

Brower et al., National Oceanic and Atmospheric Adminis-

tration, 1977.**

“Gulf of Alaska Hindcast Evaluation,” Intersea Research

Corporation, 1975-1976.

Lower Cook Inlet

“A Meteorological and Oceanographic Study of Extreme and

Operational Criteria in Lower Cook Inlet,” Evans-Hamilton,

Inc. 1977.

“Oceanographic Conditions and Extreme Factors in Lower

Cook Inlet, Alaska,” Intersea Research Corporation, 1976.

“Oceanographic Conditions for Offshore Operations in

Lower Cook Inlet, Alaska,” Intersea Research Corporation,

1975.

Bering Sea

“Climatic Atlas of the Outer Continental Shelf Waters and

Coastal Regions of Alaska, Vol. II, Bering Sea,” W. A. Broer

et al., National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration,

1977.**

“The Eastern Bering Sea Shelf; Oceanography and

Resources,” D. W. Hood and J. A. Calder, Eds., National

Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, 1982.

“Bering Sea Phase 1 Oceanographic Study—Bering Sea

Storm Specification Study,” V. J. Cardone et al., Ocean-

weather, Inc., 1980.

“Bering Sea Comprehensive Oceanographic Measurement

Program, “Brown and Caldwell, 1981–1983.

“Bering Sea Oceanographic Measurement Program,” Intersea

Research Corporation, 1976-1978.

“Bristol Bay Environmental Report,” Ocean Science and

Engineering, Inc., 1970.

“St. George Basin Extreme Wave Climate Study,” Ocean-

weather, Inc., 1983.

Beaufort/Chukchi

“Climatic Atlas of the Outer Continental Shelf Waters and

Coastal Regions of Alaska, Vol. III, Chukchi-Beaufort Seas,”

W. A. Brower et al., National Oceanic and Atmospheric

Administration, 1977.**

**Estimates of extreme wave heights in these references are

erroneous.

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“Beaufort Sea Wave Hindcast Study: Prudhoe Bay/Sag Delta

and Harrison Bay,” Oceanweather, Inc., 1982.

“Arctic Development Project, Task 1/10, Part I, Meteorologi-

cal and Oceanographic Conditions, Part II, Summary of

Beaufort Sea Storm Wave Study,” E. G. Ward and A. M.

Reece, Shell Development Company, 1979.

“Reconnaissance Environmental Study of Chukchi Sea,”

Ocean Science and Engineering, Inc., 1970.

“Alaska Beaufort Sea Gravel Island Design,” Exxon Com-

pany, U.S.A., 1979.

“Beaufort Sea Summer Oceanographic Measurement Pro-

grams,” Oceanographic Services, Inc., 1979–1983.

East Coast

“A Preliminary Environmental Study for the East Coast of

the United States,” Evans-Hamilton, Inc., 1976.

“Extreme Wave Heights Along the Atlantic Coast of the

United States,” E. G. Ward, D. J. Evans, and J. A. Pompa,

Offshore Technology Conference, OTC paper 2846, 1977.

“Characterization of Currents over Chevron Tract #510 off

Cape Hatteras, North Carolina,” Science Applications, Inc.,

1982.

“An Interpretation of Measured Gulf Stream Current Veloci-

ties off Cape Hatteras, North Carolina,” Evans-Hamilton,

Inc., 1982.

“Final Report—Manteo Block 510 Hurricane Hindcast

Study,” Oceanweather, Inc., 1983.

2.3.5 Ice

In areas where ice is expected to be a consideration in the

planning, designing or constructing of fixed offshore plat-

forms, users are referred to API Bulletin 2N: “Planning,

Designing, and Constructing Fixed Offshore Platforms in Ice

Environments,” latest edition.

2.3.6 Earthquake

2.3.6.a General

This section presents guidelines for the design of a plat-

form for earthquake ground motion. Strength requirements

are intended to provide a platform which is adequately sized

for strength and stiffness to ensure no significant structural

damage for the level of earthquake shaking which has a rea-

sonable likelihood of not being exceeded during the life of

the structure. The ductility requirements are intended to

ensure that the platform has sufficient reserve capacity to pre-

vent its collapse during rare intense earthquake motions,

although structural damage may occur.

It should be recognized that these provisions represent the

state-of-the-art, and that a structure adequately sized and pro-

portioned for overall stiffness, ductility, and adequate strength

at the joints, and which incorporates good detailing and weld-

ing practices, is the best assurance of good performance dur-

ing earthquake shaking.

The guidelines in the following paragraphs of this section

are intended to apply to the design of major steel framed

structures. Only vibratory ground motion is addressed in this

section. Other major concerns such as those identified in Sec-

tions 1.3.7 and 1.3.8 (e.g., large soil deformations or instabil-

ity) should be resolved by special studies.

2.3.6.b Preliminary Considerations

1. Evaluation of Seismic Activity. For seismically active

areas it is intended that the intensity and characteristics of

seismic ground motion used for design be determined by a

site specific study. Evaluation of the intensity and characteris-

tics of ground motion should consider the active faults within

the region, the type of faulting, the maximum magnitude of

earthquake which can be generated by each fault, the regional

seismic activity rate, the proximity of the site to the potential

source faults, the attenuation of the ground motion between

these faults and the platform site, and the soil conditions at

the site.

To satisfy the strength requirements a platform should be

designed for ground motions having an average recurrence

interval determined in accordance with Section 1.5.

The intensity of ground motion which may occur during a

rare intense earthquake should be determined in order to

decide whether a special analysis is required to meet the duc-

tility requirements. If required, the characteristics of such

motion should be determined to provide the criteria for such

an analysis.

2. Evaluation for Zones of Low Seismic Activity. In areas

of low seismic activity, platform design would normally be

controlled by storm or other environmental loading rather

than earthquake. For areas where the strength level design

horizontal ground acceleration is less than 0.05g, e.g., the

Gulf of Mexico, no earthquake analysis is required, since the

design for environmental loading other than earthquake will

provide sufficient resistance against potential effects from

seismically active zones. For areas where the strength level

design horizontal ground acceleration is in the range of 0.05g

to 0.10g, inclusive, all of the earthquake requirements, except

those for deck appurtenances, may be considered satisfied if

the strength requirements (Section 2.3.6c) are met using the

ground motion intensity and characteristics of the rare,

intense earthquake in lieu of the strength level earthquake. In

this event, the deck appurtenances should be designed for the

strength level earthquake in accordance with 2.3.6e2, but the

ductility requirements (Section 2.3.6d) are waived, and tubu-

lar joints need be designed for allowable stresses specified in

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RECOMMENDED PRACTICE FOR PLANNING, DESIGNING AND CONSTRUCTING FIXED OFFSHORE PLATFORMS—WORKING STRESS DESIGN 33

Section 2.3.6e1 using the computed joint loads instead of the

tensile load or compressive buckling load of the member.

2.3.6.c Strength Requirements

1. Design Basis. The platform should be designed to resist

the inertially induced loads produced by the strength level

ground motion determined in accordance with 2.3.6b1 using

dynamic analysis procedures such as response spectrum anal-

ysis or time history analysis.

2. Structural Modeling. The mass used in the dynamic anal-

ysis should consist of the mass of the platform associated

with gravity loading defined in 2.3.6c3, the mass of the fluids

enclosed in the structure and the appurtenances, and the

added mass. The added mass may be estimated as the mass of

the displaced water for motion transverse to the longitudinal

axis of the individual structural framing and appurtenances.

For motions along the longitudinal axis of the structural fram-

ing and appurtenances, the added mass may be neglected.

The analytical model should include the three dimensional

distribution of platform stiffness and mass. Asymmetry in

platform stiffness or mass distribution may lead to significant

torsional response which should be considered.

In computing the dynamic characteristics of braced, pile

supported steel structures, uniform model damping ratios of

five percent of critical should be used for an elastic analysis.

Where substantiating data exist, other damping ratios may be

used.

3. Response Analysis. It is intended that the design response

should be comparable for any analysis method used. When

the response spectrum method is used and one design spec-

trum is applied equally in both horizontal directions, the

complete quadratic combination (CQC) method may be used

for combining modal responses and the square root of the

sum of the squares (SRSS) may be used for combining the

directional responses. If other methods are used for combin-

ing modal responses, such as the square root of the sum of the

squares, care should be taken not to underestimate corner pile

and leg loads. For the response spectrum method, as many

modes should be considered as required for an adequate rep-

resentation of the response. At least two modes having the

highest overall response should be included for each of the

three principal directions plus significant torsional modes.

Where the time history method is used, the design response

should be calculated as the average of the maximum values

for each of the time histories considered.

Earthquake loading should be combined with other simul-

taneous loadings such as gravity, buoyancy, and hydrostatic

pressure. Gravity loading should include the platform dead

weight (comprised of the weight of the structure, equipment,

appurtenances), actual live loads and 75 percent of the maxi-

mum supply and storage loads.

4. Response Assessment. In the calculation of member

stresses, the stresses due to earthquake induced loading

should be combined with those due to gravity, hydrostatic

pressure, and buoyancy. For the strength requirement, the

basic AISC allowable stresses and those presented in Section

3.2 may be increased by 70 percent. Pile-soil performance

and pile design requirements should be determined on the

basis of special studies. These studies should consider the

design loadings of 2.3.6c3, installation procedures, earth-

quake effects on soil properties and characteristics of the soils

as appropriate to the axial or lateral capacity algorithm being

used. Both the stiffness and capacity of the pile foundation

should be addressed in a compatible manner for calculating

the axial and lateral response.

2.3.6.d Ductility Requirements

1. The intent of these requirements is to ensure that platforms

to be located in seismically active areas have adequate

reserve capacity to prevent collapse under a rare, intense

earthquake. Provisions are recommended herein which, when

implemented in the strength design of certain platforms, will

not require an explicit analytical demonstration of adequate

ductility. These structure-foundation systems are similar to

those for which adequate ductility has already been demon-

strated analytically in seismically active regions where the

intensity ratio of the rare, intense earthquake ground motions

to strength level earthquake ground motions is 2 or less.

2. No ductility analysis of conventional jacket-type struc-

tures with 8 or more legs is required if the structure is to be

located in an area where the intensity ratio of rare, intense

earthquake ground motion to strength level earthquake

ground motion is 2 or less, the piles are to be founded in soils

that are stable under ground motions imposed by the rare,

intense earthquake and the following conditions are adhered

to in configuring the structure and proportioning members:

a. Jacket legs, including any enclosed piles, are designed to

meet the requirements of 2.3.6c4, using twice the strength

level seismic loads.

b. Diagonal bracing in the vertical frames are configured

such that shear forces between horizontal frames or in vertical

runs between legs are distributed approximately equally to

bot

h tension and compression diagonal braces, and that “K”

bracing is not used where the ability of a panel to transmit

shear is lost if the compression brace buckles. Where these

conditions are not met, including areas such as the portal

frame between the jacket and the deck, the structural compo-

nents should be designed to meet the requirements of Section

2.3.6c4 using twice the strength level seismic loads.

c. Horizontal members are provided between all adjacent

legs at horizontal framing levels in vertical frames and that

these members have sufficient compression capacity to sup-

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port the redistribution of loads resulting from the buckling of

adjacent diagonal braces.

d. The slenderness ratio (Kl/r) of primary diagonal bracing in

vertical frames is limited to 80 and their ratio of diameter to

thickness is limited to 1900/F

where F

is in ksi (13100/F

for F

in MPa). All non-tubular members at connections in

vertical frames are designed as compact sections in accor-

dance with the AISC Specifications or designed to meet the

requirements of 2.3.6c4 using twice the strength level seismic

loads.

3. Structure-foundation systems which do not meet the con-

ditions listed in 2.3.6d2 should be analyzed to demonstrate

their ability to withstand the rare, intense earthquake without

collapsing. The characteristics of the rare, intense earthquake

should be developed from site-specific studies of the local

seismicity following the provisions of 2.3.6b1. Demonstra-

tion of the stability of the structure-foundation system should

be by analytical procedures that are rational and reasonably

representative of the expected response of the structural and

soil components of the system to intense ground shaking.

Models of the structural and soil elements should include

their characteristic degradation of strength and stiffness under

extreme load reversals and the interaction of axial forces and

bending moments, hydrostatic pressures and local inertial

forces, as appropriate. The P-delta effect of loads acting

through elastic and inelastic deflections of the structure and

foundation should be considered.

2.3.6.e Additional Guidelines

1. Tubular Joints. Where the strength level design horizon-

tal ground motion is 0.05g or greater (except as provided in

2.3.6.b.2 when in the range of 0.05g to 0.10g, inclusive),

joints for primary structural members should be sized for

either the tensile yield load or the compressive buckling load

of the members framing into the joint, as appropriate for the

ultimate behavior of the structure. This section pertains to

new designs. For reassessments see Section 17.

Joint capacity may be determined in accordance with Sec-

tion 4.3 except that the Equations 4.3-1, 4.3-2, and 4.3-3

should all have the safety factor (FS) set equal to 1.0. See

Commentary for the influence of chord load and other

detailed considerations.

2. Deck Appurtenances and Equipment. Equipment, pip-

ing, and other deck appurtenances should be supported so that

induced seismic forces can be resisted and induced displace-

ments can be restrained such that no damage to the

equipment, piping, appurtenances, and supporting structure

occurs. Equipment should be restrained by means of welded

connections, anchor bolts, clamps, lateral bracing, or other

appropriate tie-downs. The design of restraints should include

both strength considerations as well as their ability to accom-

modate imposed deflections.

Special consideration should be given to the design of

restraints for critical piping and equipment whose failure

could result in injury to personnel, hazardous material spill-

age, pollution, or hindrance to emergency response.

Design acceleration levels should include the effects of glo-

bal platform dynamic response; and, if appropriate, local

dynamic response of the deck and appurtenance itself. Due to

the platform’s dynamic response, these design acceleration lev-

els are typically much greater than those commonly associated

with the seismic design of similar onshore processing facilities.

In general, most types of properly anchored deck appurte-

nances are sufficiently stiff so that their lateral and vertical

responses can be calculated directly from maximum com-

puted deck accelerations, since local dynamic amplification is

negligible.

Forces on deck equipment that do not meet this “rigid

body” criterion should be derived by dynamic analysis using

either: 1) uncoupled analysis with deck level floor response

spectra or 2) coupled analysis methods. Appurtenances that

typically do not meet the “rigid body” criterion are drilling

rigs, flare booms, deck cantilevers, tall vessels, large unbaf-

fled tanks, and cranes.

Coupled analyses that properly include the dynamic inter-

actions between the appurtenance and deck result in more

accurate and often lower design accelerations than those

derived using uncoupled floor response spectra.

Drilling and well servicing structures should be designed

for earthquake loads in accordance with API Specification

4F. It is important that these movable structures and their

associated setback and piperack tubulars be tied down or

restrained at all times except when the structures are being

moved.

Deck-supported structures, and equipment tie-downs,

should be designed with a one-third increase in basic allow-

able stresses, unless the framing pattern, consequences of

failure, metallurgy, and/or site-specific ground motion inten-

sities suggest otherwise.

2.3.7 Deleted

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RECOMMENDED PRACTICE FOR PLANNING, DESIGNING AND CONSTRUCTING FIXED OFFSHORE PLATFORMS—WORKING STRESS DESIGN 35

2.4 FABRICATION AND INSTALLATION FORCES

2.4.1 General

Fabrication forces are those forces imposed upon individ-

ual members, component parts of the structure, or complete

units during the unloading, handling and assembly in the fab-

rication yard. Installation forces are those forces imposed

upon the component parts of the structure during the opera-

tions of moving the components from their fabrication site or

prior offshore location to the final offshore location, and

installing the component parts to form the completed plat-

form. Since installation forces involve the motion of heavy

weights, the dynamic loading involved should be considered

and the static forces increased by appropriate impact factors

to arrive at adequate equivalent loads for design of the mem-

bers affected. For those installation forces that are experi-

enced only during transportation and launch, and which

include environmental effects, basic allowable stresses for

member design may be increased by

in keeping with pro-

visions of 3.1.2. Also see Section 12, “Installation,” for com-

ments complementary to this section.

2.4.2 Lifting Forces

2.4.2.a General

Lifting forces are imposed on the structure by erection lifts

during the fabrication and installation stages of platform con-

struction. The magnitude of such forces should be determined

through the consideration of static and dynamic forces

applied to the structure during lifting and from the action of

the structure itself. Lifting forces on padeyes and on other

members of the structure should include both vertical and

horizontal components, the latter occurring when lift slings

are other than vertical. Vertical forces on the lift should

include buoyancy as well as forces imposed by the lifting

equipment.

To compensate for any side loading on lifting eyes which

may occur, in addition to the calculated horizontal and ver-

tical components of the static load for the equilibrium lift-

ing condition, lifting eyes and the connections to the

supporting structural members should be designed for a

horizontal force of 5% of the static sling load, applied

simultaneously with the static sling load. This horizontal

force should be applied perpendicular to the padeye at the

center of the pinhole.

2.4.2.b Static Loads

When suspended, the lift will occupy a position such that

the center of gravity of the lift and the centroid of all upward

acting forces on the lift are in static equilibrium. The position

of the lift in this state of static equilibrium should be used to

determine forces in the structure and in the slings. The move-

ment of the lift as it is picked up and set down should be

taken into account in determining critical combinations of

vertical and horizontal forces at all points, including those to

which lifting slings are attached.

2.4.2.c Dynamic Load Factors

For lifts where either the lifting derrick or the structure to

be lifted is on a floating vessel, the selection of the design lift-

ing forces should consider the impact from vessel motion.

Load factors should be applied to the design forces as devel-

oped from considerations of 2.4.2a and 2.4.2b.

For lifts to be made at open, exposed sea (i.e., offshore

locations), padeyes and other internal members (and both end

connections) framing into the joint where the padeye is

attached and transmitting lifting forces within the structure

should be designed for a minimum load factor of 2.0 applied

to the calculated static loads. All other structural members

transmitting lifting forces should be designed using a mini-

mum load factor of 1.35.

For other marine situations (i.e., loadout at sheltered loca-

tions), the selection of load factors should meet the expected

local conditions but should not be less than a minimum of 1.5

and 1.15 for the two conditions previously listed.

For typical fabrication yard operations where both the lift-

ing derrick and the structure or components to be lifted are

land-based, dynamic load factors are not required. For special

procedures where unusual dynamic loads are possible, appro-

priate load factors may be considered.

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36 API RECOMMENDED PRACTICE 2A-WSD

2.4.2.d Allowable Stresses

The lift should be designed so that all structural steel mem-

bers are proportioned for basic allowable stresses as specified

in Section 3.1. The AISC increase in allowable stresses for

short-term loads should not be used. In addition, all critical

structural connections and primary members should be

designed to have adequate reserve strength to ensure struc-

tural integrity during lifting.

2.4.2.e Effect of Tolerances

Fabrication tolerances and sling length tolerances both

contribute to the distribution of forces and stresses in the lift

system which are different from that normally used for con-

ventional design purposes. The load factors recommended in

2.4.2c are intended to apply to situations where fabrication

tolerances do not exceed the requirements of 11.1.5, and

where the variation in length of slings does not exceed plus or

minus

of 1% of nominal sling length, or 1

inches.

The total variation from the longest to the shortest sling

should not be greater than

of 1% of the sling length or 3

inches. If either fabrication tolerance or sling length toler-

ance exceeds these limits, a detailed analysis taking into

account these tolerances should be performed to determine

the redistribution of forces on both slings and structural

members. This same type analysis should also be performed

in any instances where it is anticipated that unusual deflec-

tions of particularly stiff structural systems may also affect

load distribution.

2.4.2.f Slings, Shackles and Fittings

For normal offshore conditions, slings should be selected

to have a factor of safety of 4 for the manufacturer’s rated

minimum breaking strength of the cable compared to static

sling load. The static sling load should be the maximum load

on any individual sling, as calculated in 2.4.2a, b, and e

above, by taking into account all components of loading and

the equilibrium position of the lift. This factor of safety

should be increased when unusually severe conditions are

anticipated, and may be reduced to a minimum of 3 for care-

fully controlled conditions.

Shackles and fittings should be selected so that the manu-

facturer’s rated working load is equal to or greater than the

static sling load, provided the manufacturer’s specifications

include a minimum factor of safety of 3 compared to the min-

imum breaking strength.

2.4.3 Loadout Forces

2.4.3.a Direct Lift

Lifting forces for a structure loaded out by direct lift

onto the transportation barge should be evaluated only if

the lifting arrangement differs from that to be used in the

installation, since lifting in open water will impose more

severe conditions.

2.4.3.b Horizontal Movement Onto Barge

Structures skidded onto transportation barges are subject to

load conditions resulting from movement of the barge due to

tidal fluctuations, nearby marine traffic and/or change in

draft; and also from load conditions imposed by location,

slope and/or settlement of supports at all stages of the skid-

ding operation. Since movement is normally slow, impact

need not be considered.

2.4.4 Transportation Forces

2.4.4.a General

Transportation forces acting on templates, towers, guyed

towers, minimum structures and platform deck components

should be considered in their design, whether transported on

barges or self-floating. These forces result from the way in

which the structure is supported, either by barge or buoyancy,

and from the response of the tow to environmental conditions

encountered enroute to the site. In the subsequent paragraphs,

the structure and supporting barge and the self-floating tower

are referred to as the tow.

2.4.4.b Environmental Criteria

The selection of environmental conditions to be used in

determining the motions of the tow and the resulting gravita-

tional and inertial forces acting on the tow should consider

the following:

1. Previous experience along the tow route.

2. Exposure time and reliability of predicted “weather

windows.”

3. Accessibility of safe havens.

4. Seasonal weather system.

5. Appropriateness of the recurrence interval used in deter-

mining maximum design wind, wave and current conditions

and considering the characteristics of the tow, such as size,

structure, sensitivity, and cost.

2.4.4.c Determination of Forces

The tow including the structure, sea fastenings and barge

should be analyzed for the gravitational, inertial and hydro-

dynamic loads resulting from the application of the environ-

mental criteria in 2.4.4b. The analysis should be based on

model basin test results or appropriate analytical methods.

Beam, head and quartering wind and seas should be consid-

ered to determine maximum transportation forces in the tow

structural elements. In the case of large barge-transported

structures, the relative stiffnesses of the structure and barge

are significant and should be considered in the structural

analysis.

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RECOMMENDED PRACTICE FOR PLANNING, DESIGNING AND CONSTRUCTING FIXED OFFSHORE PLATFORMS—WORKING STRESS DESIGN 37

Where relative size of barge and jacket, magnitude of the

sea states, and experience make such assumptions reasonable,

tows may be analyzed based on gravitational and inertial

forces resulting from the tow’s rigid body motions using

appropriate period and amplitude by combining roll with

heave and pitch with heave.

2.4.4.d Other Considerations

Large jackets for templates and guyed towers will extend

beyond the barge and will usually be subjected to submersion

during tow. Submerged members should be investigated for

slamming, buoyancy and collapse forces. Large buoyant

overhanging members also may affect motions and should be

considered. The effects on long slender members of wind-

induced vortex shedding vibrations should be investigated.

This condition may be avoided by the use of simple wire rope

spoilers helically wrapped around the member.

For long transocean tows, repetitive member stresses may

become significant to the fatigue life of certain member con-

nections or details and should be investigated.

2.4.5 Launching Forces and Uprighting Forces

2.4.5.a Guyed Tower and Template Type

Guyed tower and template type structures which are trans-

ported by barge are usually launched at or near the installa-

tion location. The jacket is generally moved along ways,

which terminate in rocker arms, on the deck of the barge. As

the position of the jacket reaches a point of unstable equilib-

rium, the jacket rotates, causing the rocker arms at the end of

the ways to rotate as the jacket continues to slide from the

rocker arms. Forces supporting the jacket on the ways should

be evaluated for the full travel of the jacket. Deflection of the

rocker beam and the effect on loads throughout the jacket

should be considered. In general, the most severe forces will

occur at the instant rotation starts. Consideration should be

given to the development of dynamically induced forces

resulting from launching. Horizontal forces required to ini-

tiate movement of the jacket should also be evaluated. Con-

sideration should be given to wind, wave, current and

dynamic forces expected on the structure and barge during

launching and uprighting.

2.4.5.b Tower Type

Tower type structures are generally launched from the fab-

rication yard to float with their own buoyancy for tow to the

installation site. The last portion of such a tower leaving the

launching ways may have localized forces imposed on it as

the first portion of the tower to enter the water gains buoy-

ancy and causes the tower to rotate from the slope of the

ways. Forces should be evaluated for the full travel of the

tower down the ways.

2.4.5.c Hook Load

Floating jackets for which lifting equipment is employed

for turning to a vertical position should be designed to resist

the gravitational and inertial forces required to upright the

jacket.

2.4.5.d Submergence Pressures

The submerged, non-flooded or partially flooded members

of the structure should be designed to resist pressure-induced

hoop stresses during launching and uprighting.

A member may be exposed to different values of hydro-

static pressure during installation and while in place. The

integrity of the member may be determined using the guide-

lines of 3.2.5 and 3.4.2.

2.4.6 Installation Foundation Loads

2.4.6.a General

Calculated foundation loads during installation should be

conservative enough to give reasonable assurance that the

structure will remain at the planned elevation and attitude

until piles can be installed. Reference should be made to

appropriate paragraphs in Sections 2 and 13.

2.4.6.b Environmental Conditions

Consideration should be given to effects of anticipated

storm conditions during this stage of installation.

2.4.6.c Structure Loads

Vertical and horizontal loads should be considered taking

into account changes in configuration/exposure, construction

equipment, and required additional ballast for stability during

storms.

2.4.7 Hydrostatic Pressure

Unflooded or partially flooded members of a structure

should be able to withstand the hydrostatic pressure acting on

them caused by their location below the water surface. A

member may be exposed to different values of pressure dur-

ing installation and while in place. The integrity of the mem-

ber may be determined using the guidelines of 3.2.5 and

3.4.2.

2.4.8 Removal Forces

Due consideration should be taken of removal forces such

as blast loads, sudden transfer of pile weight to jacket and

mudmats, lifting forces, concentrated loads during barge

loading, increased weight, reduced buoyancy and other forces

which may occur.

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38 API RECOMMENDED PRACTICE 2A-WSD

3 Structural Steel Design

3.1 GENERAL

3.1.1 Basic Stresses

Unless otherwise recommended the platform should be

designed so that all members are proportioned for basic

allowable stresses specified by the AISC Specification for the

Design, Fabrication and Erection of Structural Steel for

Buildings, latest edition. Where the structural element or type

of loading is not covered by this recommended practice or by

AISC, a rational analysis should be used to determine the

basic allowable stresses with factors of safety equal to those

given by this recommended practice or by AISC. Allowable

pile stresses are discussed in Section 6.9. Members subjected

to combined compression and flexure should be proportioned

to satisfy both strength and stability criteria at all points along

their length.

The AISC Load and Resistance Factor Design, First Edi-

tion code is not recommended for design of offshore plat-

forms.

3.1.2 Increased Allowable Stresses

Where stresses are due in part to the lateral and vertical

forces imposed by design environmental conditions, the basic

AISC allowable stresses may be increased by one-third. For

earthquake loadings, design levels should be in accordance

with 2.3.6.c4 and 2.3.6e. The required section properties com-

puted on this basis should not be less than required for design

dead and live loads computed without the one-third increase.

3.1.3 Design Considerations

Industry experience to date has indicated that existing,

conventional, jacket type, fixed offshore platforms have

demonstrated good reliability and reserve strength not only

for the design environmental loads but for general usage as

well. For these structures, the design environmental loading

has been more or less equal from all directions. This has

resulted in platform designs that are reasonably symmetrical

from a structural standpoint and which have proven to be

adequate for historical operational and storm conditions as

well as for loads not normally anticipated in conventional

in-place analysis.

With recent improvements in Metocean technology in

some operational areas, it is now possible to specify the varia-

tion in design conditions from different directions. This

allows the designer to take advantage of platform orientation

and the directional aspects of storm forces. However, applica-

tion of the predicted directional loads may result in a structure

which is designed for lower forces in one direction than

another. In order to provide minimum acceptable platform

strength in all directions, the following recommendations are

made.

3.1.3.a Directional Environmental Forces

Figure 2.3.4-4 provides wave directions and factors to be

applied to the omnidirectional wave heights to be used in the

determination of in-place environmental forces. When these

directional factors are used, the environmental forces should

be calculated for all directions which are likely to control the

design of any structural member or pile. As a minimum, this

should include environmental forces in both directions paral-

lel and perpendicular to each jacket face as well as all diago-

nal directions, if applicable. These directions are to be

determined by the base of the jacket.

A minimum of 8 directions are required for symmetrical,

rectangular and square platforms and a minimum of 12 direc-

tions are required for tripod jackets. For unsymmetrical plat-

forms or structures with skirt piles, the calculation of the

environmental forces from additional directions may also be

required. As stated in 2.3.4c-3, if one of these directions is not

the principal direction, then the omnidirectional wave from

the principal direction must also be considered. The maxi-

mum force should be calculated with the crest of the wave at

several locations as the crest of the wave passes through the

platform.

3.1.3.b Platform Orientation

Due to difficulties in orienting the jacket during installation

it is not always possible to position the jacket exactly as

planned. When platforms are to be installed on a relatively

flat bottom with no obstructions and with no more than one

existing well conductor, in addition to the directions stated

above, the jacket should be designed for wave conditions that

would result if the jacket were positioned 5.0° in either direc-

tion from the intended orientation.

When a jacket is to be installed over two or more existing

well conductors or in an area where obstructions on the bot-

tom such an uneven sea floor resulting from previous drilling

by mobile drilling rigs, are likely, the condition of the site

must be determined prior to the design of the platform. The

probability of the jacket being installed out of alignment

should be considered and the 5.0° tolerance increased

accordingly.

3.1.3.c Pile Design

Piling shall be designed in accordance with Sections 3 and

6 and may be designed for the specific loading for each pile

individually as predicted considering directionality of design

conditions. This will likely result in non symmetrical founda-

tions with piles having different penetration, strength and

stiffness. Industry experience to date, based on symmetrical

foundations with piles having the same wall thickness, mate-

rial grades and penetration has demonstrated good reliability

and reserve strength. For the design of non symmetrical foun-

dations, the different stiffness of each pile shall be considered

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