Xin Q. Diesel Engine System Design

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338 Diesel engine system design

noted that although the cycle simulation model is the best tool for engine

system design due to its sufcient accuracy on macro engine performance

parameters and fast computing time, it has certain limitations on predictability

and it requires careful model tuning with experimental data to handle the

uncertainties. Lumping some uncertainties together in subsystem models

(e.g., within the boundary of the system of equations formulated earlier)

is an effective approach in system-level analysis when detailed accurate

experimental data of each component are not available and when certain

complex physics cannot be modeled accurately. Over-complicated modeling

on minor details or on highly uncertain physical processes (e.g., in-cylinder

heat transfer and emissions) slows down the system analysis and provides

only marginally added benets in product design. The effectiveness of

system simulation relies on a ne balance between model complexity and

simplicity. It is worth noting that the quality of model tuning and model

predictability must be judged by comparing with multiple data points, because

the model could be ‘purposely tuned’ to match a single data point without

good predictability at other points.

Some limitations of the engine cycle simulation model are listed as

follows.

1. The model cannot accurately predict engine in-cylinder processes of heat

transfer, combustion and emissions because it is difcult to simulate

the three-dimensional distributions of the thermodynamic properties

of the gases in the cylinder. It is also difcult to simulate the complex

combustion processes as a function of both space and time for the in-

cylinder heterogeneous mixture of air, fuel and combustion products. The

model usually only uses a burn rate derived from a measured cylinder

gas pressure trace, or at most it uses zero-dimensional phenomenological

combustion models to compute a burn rate.

2. The model cannot capture all the micro details of thermal-uid components

such as the soot layer effect in EGR cooler fouling or the computational

uid dynamics (CFD) effects around the valves. Instead, the model

uses a lumped approximate approach to simulate their global or macro

performance characteristics.

3. The input data of engine hardware characteristics used in the model (e.g.,

turbocharger efciency maps) are normally obtained from an off-engine

test bench. They may not represent the true behavior of the devices under

the realistic transient boundary conditions on the real engine.

All these difculties cause simulation errors when compared to the engine

test data.

In the engine cycle simulation model, the following eight key elements

characterize the system: intake restriction, exhaust restriction, charge air

cooler, inter-stage cooler (if any, characterized by cooling capacity and

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339Fundamentals of dynamic and static engine system designs

 ow restriction), EGR cooler (characterized by cooling capacity and  ow

restriction), compressor (characterized by ef ciency), turbine (characterized

by ef ciency and effective area), and engine cylinder (characterized by

mechanical friction, base engine heat rejection, and volumetric ef ciency).

During model tuning at a given engine speed, it is important to match the

following three types of system performance parameters with high-quality

test data:

1. The  ve major design targets (brake power, BSFC, air–fuel ratio, EGR

rate, and intake manifold gas temperature).

2. The parameters related to design constraints or design limits (e.g., peak

cylinder pressure and the in-cylinder combustion pressure pattern, exhaust

manifold gas temperature, compressor outlet air temperature, exhaust

manifold pressure, engine delta P, coolant heat rejection, engine outlet

coolant temperature, and turbocharger speed).

3. The rest of the 18 parameters mentioned earlier (



EGREG

, T

, p

1,ROA

, p

, T

, p

, T

, N

, h

, p

, T

or T

, T

CACout

, and

EGRcoolerGasOut

). These parameters are not only related to model tuning,

but also essential for engine system design speci cations.

Figure 4.7 shows an example of model tuning to match a given EGR rate and

air–fuel ratio at peak torque by adjusting the turbine wastegate opening and

Heavy-duty diesel engine simulation on the effect of

high-pressure-stage turbine wastegate opening (WG)

and turbine area at peak torque

WG = 0 mm

WG = 4 mm

WG = 7.5 mm

WG = 12 mm

WG = 15 mm

HP turbine

area = 1.00

Area = 1.25

Area = 1.50

Area = 1.75

Area = 2.00

16 17 18 19 20 21 22

Air–fuel ratio

EGR rate (%)

4.7 Effect of turbine area and wastegate opening on EGR rate and

air–fuel ratio (peak torque).

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340 Diesel engine system design

turbine effective area. It should be noted that usually in a good system design

the turbine wastegate opening should be set fully closed at peak torque when

selecting the turbine area. Note that in this air system capability domain of

‘EGR rate vs. air–fuel ratio’, the parametric sweeping of turbine wastegate

opening and turbine area form a two-dimensional data area which can cover

the known engine test data point (or a system design target point). Also

note that the behavior of the data area in this two-dimensional sweeping is

dependent upon the settings of two other critical air system parameters: the

EGR valve opening (or essentially the EGR circuit ow restriction), and the

intake valve opening (or essentially the ow restriction from the compressor

inlet to the intake manifold). When the ow restriction in the EGR circuit

increases, the data area in Fig. 4.7 will shift toward the lower right direction.

When the intake throttle valve is closed, the data area in Fig. 4.7 will shift

toward the upper left direction, with only a slight increase in EGR rate but

a large reduction in air–fuel ratio. Therefore, when conducting such a two-

dimensional sweeping of turbine wastegate opening and turbine area to try

to match a given test data or a system design target at peak torque, it is

important to determine the appropriate EGR valve opening (or EGR circuit

ow restriction design) and intake throttle opening.

A similar model tuning technique can be applied to adjust the model to

match a known engine delta P and air–fuel ratio at a given EGR rate at rated

power, as shown in Fig. 4.8. A two-dimensional parametric sweeping of

turbine area and wastegate opening is conducted to form a two-dimensional

Turbine area = 0.8

Turbine area = 0.9

Turbine area = 1.0

Turbine area = 1.1

Turbine area = 1.2

Note: For a given A/F ratio and engine DP there is only

one combination of turbine area and wastegate opening

Parametric simulation on the effect of high-pressure-stage turbine area

and wastegate opening (WG) at rated power with ﬁxed EGR rate at 36%

WG = 16 mm

WG = 13 mm

WG = 10 mm

WG = 4 mm

14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22

Air–fuel ratio

Engine delta P (bar)

4.5

4.0

3.5

3.0

2.5

2.0

1.5

1.0

0.5

0.0

WG = 7 mm

4.8 Effect of turbine area and wastegate opening on engine delta P

and air–fuel ratio (at rated power).

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341Fundamentals of dynamic and static engine system designs

data area in the gure to cover the known engine test data point (or a system

design target point). At rated power, usually the intake throttle valve needs

to be set at fully open because there is a large engine delta P available to

drive EGR so that there is no need to close the intake throttle valve to help

drive EGR. Moreover, at rated power, unlike at peak torque where the EGR

valve usually needs to be set at fully open, the EGR valve has to be partially

closed in order to prevent overowing too much EGR. Note that every data

point in Fig. 4.8 is obtained by using a PID (proportional, integral, and

differential) controller in the simulation model to automatically adjust the

EGR valve opening to achieve 36% EGR rate. The behavior of the data area

in Fig. 4.8 is dependent upon another critical air system design parameter:

the turbocharger efciency. When the turbocharger efciency used in the

model increases, the data area will shift toward the right. In contrast, when

the turbocharger efciency is reduced in the model, the data area will shift

toward the left. Therefore, when conducting such a two-dimensional sweeping

of turbine wastegate opening and turbine area to try to match a given test

data or a system design target, it is important to determine the turbocharger

efciency required.

In the engine system design or model tuning parameters, the exhaust

restriction is further discussed in the aftertreatment analysis in Chapter 8

and in Chapter 15 for the subsystem interaction effects. The coolers and

engine cylinder heat rejection are discussed in Chapter 12. Engine volumetric

efciency and turbocharger performance are elaborated in Chapter 13.

Emissions design targets are explained in Chapter 7. Engine durability design

constraints are elaborated in Chapters 2 and 15.

It should be noted that using a PID feedback controller to automatically

search and match the data is an important technique to accelerate the model

tuning or design process. Examples of PID controller applications in diesel

engine system design include using a constant-torque PID control, a target

air–fuel ratio PID control, and a target EGR rate PID control.

Another challenge encountered in model tuning is to identify the root

cause of the simulation errors and minimize the errors, especially for multiple

speed/load mode points. For example, an error in the exhaust manifold gas

temperature may be caused by several factors such as a wrong air–fuel

ratio, EGR rate, BSFC, injection timing, or cylinder heat rejection. A DoE

method can be used to speed up the process of error nding and minimize

the uncertainties. Theoretically, there is only one unique set of model tuning

results which can match the true physical behavior of the engine on all

performance parameters. The challenge is to approximate that unique solution

with a minimum weighted simulation error and reasonable adjustment in

model tuning parameters for each subsystem.

A guideline for steady-state engine performance model tuning is summarized

below in order to illustrate the logic and contents of EPSI simulation.

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342 Diesel engine system design

1. Set up key input data in the model (e.g., valve size, valve lift prole,

port ow coefcient, cylinder and pipe geometry, pipe heat transfer,

turbocharger maps).

2. Check the quality of engine performance test data with energy balance

calculations and the turbocharger power balance calculation.

3. Tune engine volumetric efciency by using either the engine motoring

or ring test data.

4. Calculate mechanical friction power by subtracting the calculated

pumping loss power from the measured total engine motoring power.

5. Tune intake restriction and exhaust restriction by matching the simulation

data to the test characteristic curve of ‘pressure drop vs. volume ow

rate’.

6. Tune charge air cooler ow restriction and effectiveness by matching

the simulation data to the test curves of ‘charge air cooler pressure

drop vs. volume ow rate’ and ‘cooler effectiveness vs. air mass ow

rate’.

7. Tune EGR cooler ow restriction and effectiveness by matching the

simulation data to the test curves of ‘EGR cooler pressure drop vs.

volume ow rate’ and ‘cooler effectiveness vs. EGR mass ow rate’.

8. Calculate the heat release rates at various engine speeds and loads by

using engine cylinder pressure test data.

9. Set up the model properly to reect the true heat rejection characteristics

of the miscellaneous heat losses. Tune cylinder heat rejection by adjusting

both the Woschni heat transfer multiplier and cylinder liner/head/piston

heat transfer coefcients to match the simulation data to the computed test

data of base engine heat rejection characteristics. Or, equivalently from

the basis of energy balance, tune the Woschni multiplier and those heat

transfer coefcients to match the exhaust manifold gas temperature.

10. Plot the engine test points on the compressor and turbine maps.

Look up compressor and turbine efciencies. Calculate turbocharger

efciencies with engine ring test data. Determine turbocharger efciency

multipliers.

11. At a given engine speed and load, use the DoE approach or a simpler

parametric sweeping method to tune the DoE or sweeping factors (e.g.,

turbine effective area or VGT/wastegate opening, turbocharger efciency

multiplier, EGR valve opening, start-of-combustion timing, duration of

heat release rate) to match the simulation results to the engine test data

of engine delta P, air–fuel ratio, EGR rate, brake power (or BSFC),

exhaust manifold gas temperature, in-cylinder combustion pressure

pattern, and other system performance parameters. Use optimization

software to process the DoE simulation data to compute the factor

values for minimized weighted errors in BSFC, exhaust manifold gas

temperature, or engine delta P at a target air–fuel ratio and EGR rate.

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343Fundamentals of dynamic and static engine system designs

12. Repeat step 11 at other engine speed and load modes. For transient

engine simulations, the tuned engine control modeling parameters need

to be smooth functions of the engine speed and load.

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