Whitbread D. The Design Manual (анг.яз.)

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Typography 211

There is a readability issue. Being able to ﬁnd the start

of the next line has been shown to be a reading aid—that

is why ﬂush right and centred text formats have been found

to be unfriendly to readers. It also partly explains the ease

with which we read ﬂush left unjustiﬁed and justiﬁed text

formats—the eye can return consistently to the same

starting point for the following lines.

So asymmetrical type layouts are best when made up

of self-contained lines of text. But for occasional titles and

short bursts of information, such as those in Web sites and

advertising, asymmetrical text formatting can be a fresh and

dynamic option.

Always consider the overall shape of the text block you

have created.

Justified text

Justiﬁcation is achieved by spreading the space left at the

end of a line evenly through the line so that all lines

become the same length. Usually this means the word-

spacing varies; though in extreme cases the letterspacing

varies as well. Basically, it is this extra spacing and the

unevenness it creates that are disturbing to the typogra-

pher. Justiﬁcation often interrupts the typecolour of the

text—the uneven spacing can make the text block look

blotchy when you squint at it. However, justiﬁcation does

lend a traditional feel to a layout, and is almost essential

if you want centred headings because it ﬁrmly establishes

the width on which you are centring the heading.

When text is justiﬁed, the left and right sides of each

column of type are parallel. If the words and spaces were

left to fall naturally, the end of each line would occur at a

different point.

So why bother? Many people assume that justiﬁed type

is ‘professional’ type. They refer to the traditions built up

over centuries of book and newspaper design—but let’s face

it, those old newspapers were hardly reader-friendly.

In fact, it is only when speciﬁcally asked that people

even notice the difference between justiﬁed and unjustiﬁed

text—and then they state their preference for justiﬁed text

because it ‘looks neater’. It makes no difference to how

effectively they read the text.

These two paragraphs have

been justified, but not to the

same measure as the unjustified

paragraphs—they have been

optically adjusted for the

unjustified formatting.

Rivers

A ‘river’ of white space running

contrary to horizontal reading rhythm

can subliminally distract your reader.

It is more likely to occur in justified

text—due to the extra space

distributed through the lines to

justify them. An example is marked.

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212 Production

Books are another matter. If you need to feel like a part

of the continuum, justify your text. But do so with an

understanding of the craft of justiﬁcation. It is this craft, a

ﬁnely honed sensibility to type and its readability, that has

largely been lost since the development of computer-

generated type (including computer typesetting here as

well, not just DTP).

When type was justiﬁed by hand, the person setting the

type made decisions at the end of every line: Will the line

have too much space distributed through it if I don’t

hyphenate? Will a hyphen be needed? If so, where will it

best go in the next word? Can I squeeze the letterspacing

of a few well-chosen words to accommodate an extra word

in the line?

Hyphenation

It is essentially the process of justiﬁcation that has

necessitated the development of hyphenation programs.

It is very convenient, if you choose to have your text justi-

ﬁed, to be able to ﬁt a bit of the next word onto a short line.

Because of this, justiﬁed text will usually save a few lines

in column depth.

However, a worst-case scenario is the possibility of

a connect-the-hyphens game down the right-hand side

of a paragraph. This can be the result of either a poor

hyphenation program or a text width that is too narrow

for justiﬁcation.

Once text has been justiﬁed automatically, do a quick

scan down the right side to seek out strange or overused

hyphenation. In most cases, a wise decision to force-

hyphenate (typing in a hyphen that sends part of a word

back to the previous line) can ﬁx a paragraph.

Sometimes a punctuation mark that is not spaced,

such as an en rule, will be ignored as a logical breaking

point. If you type in a space on one side of the en rule, it

will split the term over the line break.

In many cases, ugly justiﬁcation or hyphenation can be

ﬁxed editorially—a skilful editor will occasionally ﬁnd a

shorter adjective or add a word to ‘ﬁx’ a line.

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Typography 213

Paragraph styling

The distinction between paragraphs is traditionally made

as a selection from two options. However, there are often

many paragraph stylings contained within the one docu-

ment. So although you may think your decision is just

whether to indent or to block and space your paragraphs,

you will have further paragraphing decisions to make.

Indented paragraphs

The most widely used form is the paragraph indent. Simply

set a ﬁrst line indent of 5 mm or as small as 1 em (or the

width of the typeface: in 10 point text, this becomes a

10 point indent).

As a layout element, this creates an irregular pattern of

white blocks down the side of the grey block. You might

choose to introduce more paragraph divisions to keep the

pattern more regular. Discuss this with the author or editor.

You might maximise the effect of the random paragraph

indents by featuring them: decorative indenting is simply

achieved. For example, in justiﬁed text, you might do a

half-line paragraph indent, which with centred headings

reasserts the central axis. In unjustiﬁed text in a pamphlet

or a press ad, you might do a 30 mm indent that creates a

pattern like piano keys down the side of the text block.

Sometimes an author or editor will help you to achieve a

speciﬁc pattern.

Maximising paragraph indents by using them for

the indents in lists and as the line used for photo borders

reinforces the grid line established by a paragraph indent.

It is better to delete or override the paragraph indent

with contoured text or runarounds (so that the runaround

doesn’t have an unsightly bump where the paragraph

indent occurs).

Blocked paragraphs

Reasonably popular with letter presentation and a good

one to remember if you have a short letter on your letter-

head, the blocked paragraph has no indent and is separated

from the other paragraphs by space. This spacing is often

achieved with an extra line return, but that is a poor

method. The preferred method (because it allows greater

options for your text beyond the initial use) is to use the

spacing-before-or-after section of a style sheet and allocate

a speciﬁc space.

DOING IT SMARTER

The squint test

Graphic designers don’t necessarily

have bad eyesight when they squint

at a layout! You can check the tonal

arrangement on the page if you look

through your eyelashes. The type and

pictures recede and appear to

become rectangular blocks or free-

form areas of grey tone. These areas,

some of which will be light and some

dark, create patterns, which are like

a piece of abstract art.

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214 Production

The full line return, which in text set 10/12 allocates

12 points of space between the paragraph, is too much.

A half-line return is better: a 6 point space. Even a 3 point

space can succeed—anything less can look accidental.

As a layout element, spaced full blocking can create

a disjointed page due to the horizontal white stripes that

appear randomly through the grey text block. For this

reason, it almost never works in multicolumn setting.

First paragraphs

As a layout consideration, the ﬁrst paragraph after headings

is blocked, i.e. with no paragraph indent. Consider using

this blocked paragraph even after indented lists to avoid the

look of the paragraph continuing the ﬁnal dot point.

It is easy to create this ﬁrst paragraph styling in a style

sheet as ‘based on’ normal text but with the indent deleted.

This is both a typography and a layout issue.

Typographically, the indent serves to separate a paragraph

from other paragraphs, but we signify the difference

between paragraphs and headings with at least a font

variation and often a spacing variation, so an indent is

unnecessary. As a layout issue, the text block is strength-

ened if the corner is established in the top left, making a

sharp rectangular grey block, rather than a dulled one,

which an indent would create.

Consider using a ﬁrst paragraph styling if a paragraph

falls at the top of a column to strengthen the text block on

that page. A paragraph that is broken in the middle has the

correct effect because it simply continues across into the

next column or page with no indent.

Hanging indents

In lists, you specify a hanging indent but do not show it

because you set a tab position to the point at which the

continuing lines ‘hang’. So this odd indent (where the ﬁrst

line is full width and the second and continuing lines are

indented) is rarely used in other text setting. Some people

use it to give an unusual and attention-getting effect in

pamphlets and brochures, like a backwards paragraph

indent. It has been used in the ‘Read more about it’ lists

in this book.

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Typography 215

Lists

If lists in the text are indented:

r use bullets and align them with the left margin

r align the text entry with the paragraph indent

r do not justify the text.

In legal documents, the lists are numbered and subdi-

vided alphabetically and further subdivided with roman

numerals, thus:

1. Recommendation

(a) First point

(b) Second point

i) First subdivision

ii) Second subdivision

iii) Third subdivision

2. Second recommendation

In technical reports, the subdivisions will be numerically

coded with paragraph numbering:

1 First chapter

1.1 First point

1.2 Second point

1.2.1 First subdivision

1.2.2 Second subdivision

1.2.3 Third subdivision

1.3 Third point

2 Second chapter

You should as far as possible use dot points for sub-

division of text, unless you are describing a process where

the sequence—and therefore sequential numbering—is

important, such as the steps within a recipe or a description

of how to get a refund.

1 Describe step one

2 Describe step two

Dot points

Avoid more than two levels if possible.

Use bullet ﬁrst then en dash and align as shown to

reduce the number of indents/tabs:

•

Bullet or symbol on margin; text aligned with paragraph indent

– dash or secondary bullet on paragraph indent; text indented one

more step.

Punctuation options for lists

There are three alternatives in the

setting of lists.

In lists with full sentences (like this

one):

q Start each sentence with a

capital letter.

q Finish each sentence with a

full stop.

In lists with a lead-in phrase, long

dot clauses and subsets (like this

one), you should:

q start each entry in the list with

lower case unless it is a proper

noun;

q use a dash

– for a subset of a dot point

– to indicate a list within a

dot point;

q use a semicolon at the end of

each entry, except for the last

point which takes a full stop.

In lists with a lead-in phrase and dot

points (like this one), use:

q lower case

q no punctuation

q a full stop at the end.

Consult a style manual for more

detail on capitalisation and

punctuation options for lists.

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216 Production

Many people prepare lists with indented dot points like this:

Our products include:

• Apples

– Golden delicious

– Granny Smith

– Fuji

• Oranges

– Valencia

– Navel

In the following examples, the layout is instantly improved

and, incidentally, stronger because of the reinforcement of

the margin and avoidance of secondary tab levels:

Our products include:

• Apples

– Golden delicious

– Granny Smith

– Fuji

• Oranges

– Valencia

– Navel

You can use bullets or any combination of appropriate

dingbats as markers.

Tabs

All a tab can do is align text. Tabs control the horizontal

placement of text within a line. They are mostly used in

producing tables or lists. When used to position headings

or the starting line of text, we normally call them ‘indents’.

Indenting

Too many indents can make a page look really ugly. Some

people go indent crazy, choosing to tab successive levels of

information without using some of the other techniques

available to them for establishing levels of importance

(altering fonts from medium to bold, for instance). It often

happens in contents lists.

Compare: with: or

Title Title Title

Subtitle Subtitle Subtitle

Author’s name Author’s name Author’s name

Better? Usually, in text and contents lists, it is better to

avoid indents if possible and limit yourself to one or two.

DOING IT FASTER

Copy and paste

Use the copy and paste features for

lists where you have allocated a

dingbat (such as a square) for the dot

point instead of a bullet. Copy the

dingbat and the tab that follows it,

then paste that over each bullet in

the list. You will find it is quicker than

changing the typeface to dingbat

font at the beginning character of

every line.

To save you doing this, some

programs will allow you to allocate a

keyboard command to your character

style sheet.

DOING IT EVEN FASTER

Search and replace

Use the search and replace feature

for something that needs to change

throughout a manuscript. Remember

to proofread carefully because this

can create some unexpected

alterations because you may have

removed something unintentionally

by doing a universal command.

Our products include:

r Apples

q Golden delicious

q Granny Smith

q Fuji

r Oranges

q Valencia

q Navel

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Typography 217

Tables

In tables and lists it can get much more complex. Take a

simple table with some standard tabbing errors:

Product Sales ($) Sales (% of stock)

Apple 114 54.4

Orange 255 61.75

Lettuce 12 9.5

or worse, the same table with each column centred:

Product Sales ($) Sales (% of stock)

Apple 114 54.4

Orange 255 61.75

Lettuce 12 9.5

Ugly. Even worse, though, is the same table with rules

separating the columns:

Product Sales ($) Sales (% of stock)

Apple 114 54.4

Orange 255 61.75

Lettuce 12 9.5

Vertical rules in a table may link the wrong information;

horizontal rules relate the appropriate information string.

Now, reset the table with correct tabs set (which will

align the $ sales on the right, so that the ﬁgures align

correctly—units above units, tens above tens, and the

percentages will be aligned on the decimal point) and a

slight improvement in the deﬁnition of levels of infor-

mation (the use of italics for the column headings). The

column headings will be tabbed differently from the

content of the columns—so there are two tab sets deﬁned

because of the third column heading not having a decimal

point in it.

Product Sales Sales

$ % of stock

Apple 114 54.4

Orange 255 61.75

Lettuce 12 9.5

Greatly—and simply—improved.

Get to know what your tabbing commands mean.

Usually you have left-align, right-align, centre-align and

decimal-point-align tab options.

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218 Production

And don’t fall into the trap of using only preset tabs

(they are usually evenly spaced, left-aligned tabs at regular

intervals across your column measure). Preset tabs can be a

problem when you import from a word-processing program

to your page layout program.

Even in spreadsheet programs, when outputting turn off

all the column borders and use type variation and spacing

to make the tabular material easier to read.

Footnotes/references/bibliographies

Footnotes appear at the foot of the column or page on

which a text reference occurs but can be set beside the text

reference in margins or a side column or, in text with

generous leading, footnotes can sit between the lines at the

point where the reference is made.

Endnotes are set like footnotes but occur in a list at the

end of the chapter or the end of the publication.

Reference systems vary but there are two common

stylings.

Traditional footnotes

In text: Use these symbols in order, starting anew on each

page: * (asterisk), † (dagger), ‡ (double dagger), § (section

marker), || (parallel mark), ¶ (paragraph marker).

In text, it has become more usual to use the superior

number instead of the symbols. There are three options for

numbering: consecutively through the page, consecutively

through the chapter or consecutively through the book.

At the foot of the page: The footnote is usually set in the

same font but two point sizes smaller than the text size,

mostly unjustiﬁed even if the text is justiﬁed. Sometimes a

ﬁne rule (0.18 mm) of about 15 mm in length is used above

them to set footnotes apart from the text. The number

corresponding with the text superior appears at the left and

then a tab, usually set at the paragraph indent of the main

text, then the note follows starting with a capital letter and

ﬁnishing with a full stop. The number of the footnote need

not be a superior ﬁgure.

Some people use Latin terms such as ‘ibid.’, ‘op. cit.’ and

‘loc. cit.’, but not everyone understands their meanings fully

so it is best to avoid them.

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Typography 219

Author–date style

In text: The reference is in parentheses and immediately

follows a quote or a reference to a particular work. It refers

to a bibiliography or reference list that contains the full

reference to the citation.

One commentator suggested that the world is flat (Brown 1996, p. 43).

Note the punctuation and the positioning of spaces.

At the end of the chapter or the publication: The bibliography

or reference list is organised alphabetically according to the

author’s family name and the date of the publication:

Brown, J. 1996, History of the World, 2nd edn, West Books, Sydney.

Again, note the punctuation and spacing. (For further

information, consult the relevant style manuals.)

Internet, e-mail and CD-ROM referencing

Following the same form as a book reference as far as

possible, Internet and CD-ROM references include a

reference to the medium in which it was published, a

carefully checked, full URL and the date on which the

reference was sourced by the person making the citation

and the date the last update to the site was uploaded by

the site manager.

Boxed text

Boxing text separates it from the rest of the text. It should

be done for a reason—either it is more important, it is a

distinct, self-contained subject, or it adds dimension to the

text that surrounds it. When boxing text, do not crowd it.

Make the box ﬁt the grid and indent your text on all sides.

The box becomes the dominant visual element in the

layout, not the text width.

Beware of giving relatively unimportant pieces of text

great importance in the page layout due to being boxed.

Also avoid using too many boxes, because each competes

for the reader’s attention.

Therefore the correct text to place in a box is text with

importance and text that stands alone (i.e. it does not need

the context of the story to be understood).

You can also box a section of information that is on a

tangent to the main article—as you often see in magazines.

In an article on the First Fleet, there might be a boxed

section on ‘The Eora people’.

Vancouver system

The Vancouver system of referencing

is preferred to the author–date style

by some professions, particularly the

medical profession. It features a

numerical coding in superscript,

which is given consecutively to

references throughout the text.

That coding becomes the code for all

references from that same source

throughout the document. References

at the end of the document are

identified in numerical order. There

are many differences to the citation

style for references discussed here.

For example, when citing titles, there

are no capitals except the first word

and any proper nouns—not even the

first word in subtitles!