Whitbread D. The Design Manual (анг.яз.)
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Typography 201
unstuck. You might spell presumably unintentional words
across a layout or down a layout with strong random
initials. They also tend to cancel each other out, becoming
just a decoration and losing their importance in redirecting
the reader’s gaze.
READ MORE ABOUT IT
Geoffrey Rogers, Editing for print, Macdonald and Co., London, 1985,
ISBN 0 356 10787 6.
Baden Eunson, Writing at work, John Wiley & Sons, Brisbane, 1996,
ISBN 0 471 33564 9.
Shirley Purchase (compiler), The little book of style, AusInfo, Canberra, 1998,
ISBN 0 644 38296 1.
George Stern, Choosing your mark: A guide to good expression and
punctuation, AGPS, Canberra, 1995, ISBN 0 644 42663 2.
Style manual for authors, editors and printers, 5th edn, AusInfo, Canberra,
1994, ISBN 0 644 29771 9.
Constance Hale (ed.), Wired style: Principles of English usage in the digital age,
HardWired, San Francisco, 1996, ISBN 1 888869 01 1.
Punctuation marks
The accurate detailing of punctuation is a part of profes-
sionally presented text. If it is inconsistent or incorrect, it
makes your client or organisation look incompetent or,
worse, inept.
The rule of thumb for editorial correction is that, while
you may have personal preferences, many options are
acceptable, provided that they are consistently applied.
The current practice is leaning towards minimal
punctuation, minimal capitalisation and minimal text
interference. That said, you would again find personal
preferences often win out. But readability and understand-
ability are the main determinants of how much
punctuation to use.
Spacing punctuation marks
Punctuation marks nearly always immediately follow or
precede that which they punctuate.
Question and exclamation marks, commas and full
stops, semi-colons and colons do not have a space before
them, and they have only one space after them—never two,
as typists were taught.
Apostrophes have no space either side, unless they
follow a plural (e.g. ‘She could never remember her uncles’
birthdays.’—the birthdays of many uncles) or unless they
Different spaces
There are spaces achieved in lines of
text with indents and tabs—either
preset or customised. And either
tracking or kerning can customise
spacing between letters. However,
there are other spacing options.
The normal space bar is pressed
once for a space between words. It
will vary in width in justified settings
and also allows lines to be broken at
that point. But there are times when
you do not want a line broken at that
point, e.g. in the middle of a phone
number, code or number, or after
initials in a name. In these instances,
use a non-breaking space, which is a
different keystroke.
In listings, you sometimes want
to space some text slightly further
away from an entry, such as prices in
menus or page numbers in contents
lists. You can use an em space or an
en space (which are the same widths
respectively as the em and en rules).
A fixed space or thin space
(called a punctuation space in
America) is the width of a comma
and often used instead of a comma in
numbers. Because it is a ‘fixed’
space, it will not increase or reduce
in size when used in justification.
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202 Production
indicate that the beginning or ending of a word is missing
(‘ ’Allo, ’allo, what’s goin’ on ’ere, then?’).
Opening quotes are preceded by one space but no space
follows them. Closing quotes do not have a preceding
space, but are followed by a single space.
If punctuation marks were spaced, they would leave gaps
within the texture of the type and interrupt the typecolour.
Minimal and maximal punctuation
These two addresses demonstrate one of the most impor-
tant principles to remember about modern punctuation:
reduce it to bare essentials. Compare:
Mr DW Whitbread Mr D. W. Whitbread,
PO Box 3127 P. O. Box 3127,
Weston Creek ACT 2611 Weston Creek, A.C.T., 2611.
Note that it is also acceptable to space initials if desired:
D W Whitbread
Excluding sentences and poetry, do not put punctuation
at the ends of lines because the line return is enough to
make the distinction. However, in text where you might
run the address within a paragraph, you would punctuate it
like this: Mr DW Whitbread, PO Box 3127, Weston Creek
ACT 2611.
Street names do not include possessive punctuation—
so ‘King Georges Terrace’ is not punctuated to ‘King
George’s Terrace’.
Also recognise the modern practice for referring to
Australian States and territories without full stops: NSW,
WA, SA, NT and ACT. This is largely because Australia Post
computers do not like punctuation in the final line of
addresses, which always includes the reference to the
State. So ‘VIC’ is preferred to ‘Vic.’ for Victoria; ‘TAS’ is
preferred to ‘Tas.’ for Tasmania; and ‘QLD’ is preferred
to ‘Qld’ for Queensland.
Acronyms and initialisms
Like States, in acronyms and initialisms we delete full
stops: UNSW, WHO, NAB, BHP, CSR, ALP, USA, UK,
OHS, HRD, HOD, ASIO.
Note the following exceptions, which, although they
are acronyms, are set with an initial capital only: Qantas,
Anzac, Unesco.
‘Okay,’
he said.
‘
Okay,
’
he said.
AFTER
BEFORE
In display setting, punctuation marks
will sometimes be reduced—which,
in the case of apostrophes and quote
marks, will also require them to be
re-positioned. They are then kerned
and ‘hung’ in the margin for an
improved optical alignment of the
text block.
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Full stop/full point/period
Full stops appear at the end of sentences, immediately
following the last word. Only one space follows them and
then the next sentence starts. ‘Period’ is the US term.
Full stops should not appear in logos, no matter how
strongly an advertising agency argues the case. They should
rarely appear in headlines, and if they do on the occasion
that the headline is a sentence, they should be reduced in
size and kerned to make minimal impact on the text. A full
stop on a headline has been found to be a disincentive to
continue reading the body text that follows it.
Full stops should be used in lists when the dot points
are in sentence structure, and on the last point when the
list is a continuation of a lead-in phrase.
Full stops are used to divide the parts of a Web URL and
to signal abbreviations but are not used in contractions.
On the occasions where you are tempted to key three full
stops, replace them with a single keystroke called the
‘points of ellipsis’.
Contractions/abbreviations
Where the last letter of a contraction is the final letter of the
word that has been contracted, the contraction does not
have a full stop. Note these examples:
r ‘Pty’ for ‘Proprietary’ r ‘Rd’ for ‘Road’
r ‘Ltd’ for ‘Limited’ r ‘Mr’ for ‘Mister’
r ‘Bros’ for ‘Brothers’ r ‘Mrs’ for ‘Missus’
r ‘St’ for ‘Saint’ or ‘Street’ r ‘Miss’ for ‘Mistress’
r ‘Ave’ for ‘Avenue’ r ‘Dr’ for ‘Doctor’
but note ‘no.’ for ‘number’, which is a contraction of the
Italian word ‘numero’, but takes a full stop to avoid
ambiguity.
Abbreviations take a full stop when their final letter is a
letter partway through the word, thus:
r ‘Inc.’ for ‘Incorporated’ r ‘Prof.’ for ‘Professor’
r ‘Dr.’ for ‘Drive’ r ‘Uni.’ for ‘University’
r ‘Cl.’ for ‘Close’ r ‘Co.’ for ‘Company’
r ‘Pl.’ for ‘Place’ r ‘Cor.’ for ‘Corinthians’.
There is also a software titling convention that has
become a standard naming convention, which is often
playful or gimmicky and usually incorporates contraction,
particularly of spacing and punctuation, but retains capitals
within a hybrid term, thus: QuarkXPress, AusInfo. But
note: Westpac (for ‘Western Pacific’).
Typography 203
CHECK LIST
Punctuation to watch
q Use open (‘) and close (’) quotes
q Single quotes preferred to double
q Only one space typed after a full
stop
q No space typed before: % ? ! :
; / ) ]
q No space typed after: $ / ( [ ‘
q No space before or after: -
q No punctuation in:
– addresses
– dates: 18 November 1989
(but note:
Saturday, November 18, 1989,
which is US usage)
q No full stops in:
– logos or headings
– post-nominals: BEd, PhD,
MSc, BA(Hons)
– abbreviations in capitals:
NSW, GPO, AGDA
– metric symbols: km, g, L, mm
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Comma
If the text is understandable without punctuation, i.e. it is
unambiguous and reads logically, then don’t interrupt it
with punctuation. To this end, we do not use as many
commas as may have been used in the past. Commas
rarely appear in headlines or display text. We also avoid
them if line breaks separate ideas, so the idea that every
line in an address or poem finishes with a comma has
been superseded.
Quotes/inverted commas
In dialogue or quoted text, the preference is for single
quotes for a first-level quotation and double quotes within
a quote. This is probably exactly the opposite of what you
were taught at school. Thus, bearing in mind that less
is best:
r The Professor asked, ‘Why is it so?’
r ‘Then she said, “I’m 18, okay?” and I admitted her,’ the
attendant explained.
Slash/solidus/slant
The slash or solidus usually stands between two options,
hence ‘and/or’ and even ‘him/her’. This is why it is
incorrect to use the solidus to express a financial year:
‘2000/01’ implies 2000 ‘or’ 2001. The slash also stands for
‘per’, hence ‘$5/adult’. The solidus is used to separate
elements within Web URLs:
http://www.unswpress.com.au/designmanual/
It can also be used in the expression of dates: 09/01/94.
Note that the use of double figures in this method of
expression creates a more even look than 9/1/94. Also be
aware that this date as expressed is understood in Australia
as 9 January 1994 but in the United States would be
understood to be 1 September 1994. For Web sites and
other international communications, it might be more
appropriate to use a spelt-out date for clarity. In forms it is
becoming more widely recognised that a coding specifying
the sequence is required: ‘DD/MM/YY’ for Australia and
‘MM/DD/YY’ for the American preference.
Real quotes
‘ Opening single quote
’ Closing single quote
“ Opening double quotes
” Closing double quotes
The symbols for imperial measures
for inches and feet:
' Foot mark
" Inch mark
Smart quotes
Many programs have a preset default
that will automatically replace typed
inch and foot marks with opening
and closing quotes. The ability of
the program to do this is based on
accurate preparation of the spaces
around the marks. If a space
precedes the mark, it assumes you
want an opening quote. If a space
follows the mark, it assumes you
need a closing quote. It will also
assume you want a double quote if
you type the inch mark and a single
quote if you type a foot mark. This
has its problems when it comes to
wanting apostrophes to start a word,
because the default wants to give
you an opening quote mark, not an
apostrophe.
Compare:
’Tis the season
Apostrophe
‘Tis the season
Opening quote
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Hyphen
The hyphen is a single keystroke and is used in compound
words like blue-green algae.
It has also been used between double vowels when the
vowel sound needs to change as in ‘co-operate’, so you don’t
read ‘coop’ as in chickens, but this detail is now passing out
of usage, successfully argued by proponents of minimal
punctuation, so ‘cooperate’ is now preferred.
When you break a word at the end of a line to continue
it on the next, as in most justification programs, a hyphen
is used.
For display setting,
there are a few finer details of their use you might like to
consider:
r In large headings, punctuation marks (including
hyphens) are often reduced so they are not so intrusive.
If they are smaller though, they are raised to correct
position for the type using baseline shift.
r Between words set in all capitals you need to raise the
hyphen to the centre of the capital letters, because the
hyphen is set at the centre of the lower-case x-height.
En rule
An en rule is about double the length of a hyphen and is
used in compound terms and stands for the words ‘and’ or
‘to’. Therefore, the Sydney–Brisbane grand final takes an en
rule for Sydney ‘and’ Brisbane. The Melbourne–Perth rail
link takes an en rule for from Melbourne ‘to’ Perth.
The 2000–01 financial year has an en rule meaning
2000 ‘to’ 2001. The solidus is often incorrectly used in
this form (i.e. not 2000/01, as there is no sense of
option or ‘per’).
Spaced en rule
The spaced en rule (space, en rule, space) should be used
with compound terms that are compounded. Therefore, the
Western Australia – South Australia match is the compound
of two compounds and should take a spaced en rule. The
Queensland – New South Wales border is a compound term
because New South Wales is three words. So the rule is:
When one or both the terms have a space within the term,
there should be a space either side of the en rule.
Another example of this is in date spans: the weekend of
30 September – 1 October, or 1 July 2000 – 30 June 2001.
Typography 205
Compare:
Hyphen -
En rule –
Em rule —
Double em rule ——
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206 Production
For display setting:
r In large headings, punctuation marks are often reduced
so they are not so intrusive. You would also probably
avoid the spaced en rule in headings.
r In titles, you may like to replace the en rule with a circle
or diamond to make the setting more interesting.
r In all-capitals setting, you need to raise the en rule to the
centre of the capital letters because the en rule is set at
the centre of the lower case x-height.
Em rule/dash
An em rule is double the length of an en rule. It may or
may not have a space either side but, if it falls at the end
of a line, the line can be broken either before or after the
em rule.
Most justification programs will not separate two
words that are connected with an em rule unless there is a
space. Consequently, at the moment, most magazines and
publishing companies have a policy of using a spaced em
rule (space, em rule, space) so the rule will break at the end
or beginning of a line.
The em rule is not like a hyphen, which appears only at
the end of a line in a broken term. The em rule can appear
at the beginning of the next line if it does not fit on the
previous line.
But when should it be used? There are arguments that
the em rule can be replaced by other punctuation marks,
specifically commas or parentheses (these round brackets).
Often, em rules are used in sets of two—though not
exclusively—for a parenthetical statement. If you reread the
previous sentence, it could read ‘Often, em rules are used
in sets of two (though not exclusively) for a parenthetical
statement’ or even ‘Often, em rules are used in sets of two,
though not exclusively, for a parenthetical statement’.
For display setting:
r In headings and titles, where possible, em rules are
avoided and other punctuation marks, such as commas
and parentheses, are used instead.
r In all-capitals setting, you need to raise the em rule to
the centre of the capital letters, because the em rule is
set at the centre of the lower-case x-height.
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Double-em rule
A double-em rule is used in bibliographies and references.
It is used in lists of publications where an author or authors
may have written more than one book listed in the bibliog-
raphy. List the author/s for the first entry and then, instead
of repeating the author/s for the subsequent entries, use a
double-em rule to indicate that they are the same as the
previous entry:
Meggs, Philip B. A History of Graphic Design. New York: Van Nostrand
Reinhold, 1983.
——. Type and Image: The Language of Graphic Design. New York: Van
Nostrand Reinhold, 1989.
Colon
Colons introduce quotations, summaries and lists, either in
catalogue form or in continuous prose. They are also used
to indicate a ratio (1:2) and to separate chapter and verse in
references to the Bible (Deut. 4:26).
In computing, film and video referencing, they are also
used in the expression of time to separate minutes from
hours: 12:00 (but note that this is not the practice in
general text).
Semicolon
Semicolons can be used between entries in listings where
commas would not be clear enough or the entry has
numerous parts that already contain commas. A semicolon
is thus a separation device. In sentence structures, they are
sometimes used in place of conjunctions (words which join
two related statements).
Parentheses/square brackets/braces/brackets
Parentheses are the curved ‘brackets’ that separate ideas
from main text (like these).
Square brackets [like these] are often used for editorial
asides within text—they indicate another voice. They are
also used as the secondary level of bracketing within
parentheses in mathematical setting. In display setting, they
often work better than parentheses with sans serif and slab
serif typefaces.
Braces are the wriggly ones {like these} and are mostly
used in mathematics to join two elements of an equation.
They are handy for display setting at times as they sit more
decoratively with script and traditional serif typefaces.
Typography 207
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208 Production
Margin mark Text mark Correction as it would appear
Inse t Insert
Insertspace Insert space
Mystake Mistake
Spell out & and
Deletee Delete
Delete and cloose up Delete and close up
Leave as is Leave as is
capitalise Capitalise
Capitals and small caps Capitals and Small Caps
Lower Case* lower case
Italicise Italicise
Make bold Make bold
Make roman Make roman
W rong f ont Wrong font
Superior/superscript degree o footnote 1 degreeº footnote
1
Inferior/subscript x a + y b = z c x
a
+ y
b
= z
c
Transpo e s Transpose
Close u p Close up
Align Align
Align Align
Correct
align
ment Correct alignment
Run Run on
on
Insert colon semi-colon full stop colon: semi-colon; full stop.
question exclamation question? exclamation!
single double comma ‘single’ “double” comma,
“Single quotes” * ‘Single quotes’
Hyphen ate Hyphen-ate
En rule* 2000-01 Sydney-Canberra 2000–01 Sydney–Canberra
Em rule You -- you’re kidding? You—you’re kidding?
* Two accepted methods for indicating these changes are illustrated.
Proofreading marks
There is a margin mark to draw
attention to the error and a text mark
that defines exactly where it occurs.
At the end of each margin mark there
is a solidus or slash to separate it
from the next mark if one occurs in
the same line.
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Citing the Bible
The punctuation of Bible references is standard: ‘John 3:16’
cites an individual verse and means a reading from the
Gospel of Saint John, chapter 3, verse 16. The colon follows
the chapter number and the verse number follows with no
space. ‘i Corinthians 13:1–13’ cites a chapter and means a
reading from Paul’s first letter to the Corinthians, chapter
13, starting at verse 1 and finishing at verse 13. The first
letter is denoted by using the Roman numeral for ‘one’
which is a capital i. Paul’s second letter to the Corinthians
would be cited: ‘ii Corinthians’. The colon follows the
chapter number, then comes the starting verse number,
followed by an en rule and the closing verse number, with
no space either side of the en rule.
To abbreviate the Bible sources, the same citation could
read, i Cor. 13:1–13. Since verse 13 is the final verse of that
chapter, you could also cite this reference, without specify-
ing the verses, as: i Cor. 13.
Some Bibles will give a preferred abbreviation guide in
the contents listing at the front.
Text formatting
There are five text formatting options available to you, but
really only two that are practical for continuous reading.
The other three are suitable for display text setting and
some specific purposes, but need to be used with care.
Unjustified text
If the lines in a text block remain uneven in length,
it is called ragged right, range left or, more often, flush
left unjustified.
The left side of the text is set at a regular point which
aids the return of the eye to the next line, and the right side
of the text is uneven, ensuring the texture of the type is
even. Text that is set flush left unjustified has an even
typecolour because the spacing between words is constant.
It leaves that extra space at the end of the line, which gives
it the ragged look, hence its alternative title ‘ragged right’.
It even usually avoids the cross-patterning of ‘rivers’.
Unjustified text also looks a bit more modern—it
was considered an essential ingredient in the Swiss styling
that dominated design in the mid-20th century. Other
ingredients of that ‘modern’ style were sans serif type, a
multicolumn grid and a generous use of white space.
Typography 209
Spell-checks and
proofreading
Nothing beats the proofread for
fixing errors. Spell-checks can only
go so far. A spell-check will not
recognise such typos as the
miskeying of ‘from’ to ‘form’.
Although a spell-check will identify
words it doesn’t recognise, and this
enables you to catch most typos,
there is a need for someone to do
a proofread for sense and style
following the spell-check.
Flush left unjustified
or
ranged left
or
ragged right
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If text is set in narrow columns, it should be set flush
left unjustified to avoid the uneven spacing and hyphen-
ation that justification causes but also to give extra ‘optical’
separation between the columns. The actual measure of
unjustified columns is wider than their optical width, due to
the space (which would be distributed between the words if
the setting was altered to justified) being placed on the
right-hand side of the text. The optical width of the column
gives the impression of a wider gutter between columns.
However, when people are asked their preference,
unjustified text is often disliked because it looks so ‘untidy’.
To make unjustified text more even down the ragged
right side, you can introduce limited hyphenation either by
using judicious hyphenation as a manual process by the
editor or designer, or by using a rag zone. By setting a
minimum line length, any word that sets beyond that
length is hyphenated according to the program’s hyphen-
ation dictionary.
Flush right and centred settings
There are two other options to consider when choosing
unjustified text format: ragged left, range right or flush right
unjustified; and centred. These are self-explanatory and,
interestingly, best used in a similar manner.
Due to the difficulty of extended reading of either
centred or flush right unjustified text, use those styles only
for brief, self-contained pieces of information, such as the
pieces used in posters, titles or invitations: headlines, titles,
names, dates, times, places, addresses. Each line-break
should be logical.
It is believed that the difficulty of reading these two
styles stems from the fact that the left side of the text is
uneven. When reading justified or flush left text, the
left side is constant, giving our eyes a standard point to
which they can return. This is believed to be essential for
comfortable, extended reading.
Asymmetrical/free-form text
There is a free-form text styling that is sometimes used
by poets to create a random or unstructured text layout.
You may use a set of standard indents for alternate lines
of text and allow short and long lines to fall as they will.
Asymmetrical text has grown from modern poetry layout
and has become a popular option for dynamic display type:
magazine article headings, advertising and cover titles.
210 Production
Flush right unjustified
or
ranged right
or
ragged left
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