Qin Y. Micromanufacturing Engineering and Technology

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registering the output of useful product and

waste. To perform a complete LCA would

require not only energy data but also data for

raw materials, and the e nd-of-life has to be esti-

mated. One issue that needs to be better investi-

gated is scenarios of product e nd-of-life and

waste management, especially since disassembly

and recycling may be troublesome.

Another example can be seen in [19] where a

Japanese micro-factory targeting miniature ball-

bearings is described. The small factory includes:

milling and turning, sheet metal micro-forming,

handling and assembly. It is stated that each of the

processes of the chain is achievable, but acknowl-

edged bottlenecks are precision in fixturing and

time consumption during handling and assembly,

which are done manually. The portable version of

the micro-factory weighs 34 kg and fits into a

625 mm  490 mm  380 mm box. It requires a

100 V AC power supply, although no data about

power consumption is given. In this example, the

making of the die for the sheet-metal forming

operation is not studied.

Scientists at DuPont have taken the concept

of the micro-factory to the VLSI industry and

crafted a complete chemical plant using just three

silicon wafers taken from a modern IC process

[20]. This micro-factory is capable of synthesizing

18,000 kg/yr of the toxic industrial chemical

methylisocyanate. Reports of the concept of

micro-factories can be found in the MEMS in-

dustry [21] and also in the mechatronics industry

[22].

Using LCA is as relevant in micro-factories

as it is in other types of manufacturing facili ties.

There are some issues that need to be taken into

account, e.g. the flexibility of micro-factories

making them less comparable with production

lines, or the potential need for clean-room faci-

lities and the assessm ent of the added value of

miniaturization, which could affect their appli-

cations. Nevertheless, there is a clear advantage

in the possibilities of identifying environmental-

improvement potentials in the process chain.

ETHICALISSUESANDTOXICOLOGY–

ADDITIONAL ISSUES CONCERNING

NANO-TECHNOLOGIES

There is a trend to integrate micro-manufacturing

and nano-manufacturing with a view to bridging

the gaps between two length-scale manufactur-

ing, and hence, to deliver more engineering-signif-

icance products. As far as the LCA is concerned,

there is a need to mention ethical issues and

toxicology relevant to nano-manufacturing –

nano-technology in general. While nano-technol-

ogy broadly describes the field of working at the

nano-scale, emphas is has been put on the environ-

mental and health risks of nano-particles. Two

FIGURE 25-5 The DTU micro-factory process chain.

CHAPTER 25 Sustainability of Micro-Manufacturing Technologies 401

factors are mainly responsible for the hazard

potential of nano -particles: their high surface-to-

volume ratio (which is due to their small size) and

their composition.

First, potential risks of nano-particles are

related to their use in applications where they

can be taken up by humans through inhalation,

ingestion or via the skin. This could be from: free

particles in the air, for example in the work envi-

ronment; nano-particles in liquid suspension, for

example in skin lotion; or nano-particles in sur-

face treatment that can be released during use or

disposal. As indicated, the risks may occur during

production, use or disposal. Moreover, also

because of their small size, nano-particles may

have toxicological properties that are different

from those of their macro-counterparts.

Second, the geometry and surface chemistry of

many nano-particles increases their uptake into

the human body, especially through the lungs

after inhalation, and through ingestion, but also

potentially through the skin. Additionally, the

human immune system may have problems deal-

ing with the particles and the increased surface

area of the particles compared to that of larger

particles can make them more reactive in the

human organism. A recently published review of

the potential risks of nano-particles shows that

they can be deposited in the lungs after inhalation

and cause oxidative stress and inflammation.

They may also be taken up into the body and

translocated into other tissues: trans location to

the brain has been seen. Uptake via the intestine

after oral intake has been encountered and some

evidence shows that oxidative stress and inflam-

mation may also occur in the body after oral

uptake. Uptake through the skin is, however,

not sufficiently documented. Only a few specific

nano-particles have as yet been investigated

and the toxicity of many new engineered nano-

particles is largely unknown [23].

Figure 25-6 shows a comparison of size

between asbestos and carbon nano-tubes. There

is a drastic difference between the diameter and

length of a nano-tube and a fiber of asbestos, but

the history of the material could be considered:

use of material for a specific property without

proper examination of the potential health

FIGURE 25-6 SEM pictures of anthophillite asbestos and carbon nano-tubes. The scale bar is 50 mm in the case of asbestos

(on the left, picture taken from Wikipedia) and 2 mm in the case of carbon nano-tubes (on the right, picture taken from [24]).

402 CHAPTER 25 Sustainability of Micro-Manufacturing Technologies

hazard. Mainly, scientists affirm that the lesson of

asbestos is to be learned and that a principle of

precaution is to be adopted.

Moreover, as said in the editorial of Nature

[25]: ‘Nano-technology is set to be the next cam-

paign focus for environmental groups’, which

enhances that research has not only to be per-

formed in the field of nano-toxicology, but also

that scientists have to comm unicate about it in

order to make it acceptable for a massive use in

society. For example, the European Union funded

the NANOSAFE project to assess the techn-

ology’s environmental and health risks in 2003,

and at the same time the US Environmental

Protection Agency invited proposals to study

the environmental and health impact of nano-

technology. Similarly, the Royal Society and the

Royal Academy of Engineering began some UK

studies in 2004. In Denmark, the Ministry of

Science, Technology and Innovation issued an

action plan including attention to health hazards,

environmental and ethical considerations regard-

ing nano-science and nano-technology, in 2004.

In the USA, a study about the military environ-

mental-health considerations has been reported

in [24]. In this study the potential use and impact

are listed and research priorities are highlighted.

Again, the mechanisms of the absorption of nano-

particles into the body and the reaction from the

immune system are considered as critical areas to

prevent or reduce risks, toget her with pollution-

related issues (e.g. the disposal and recycling of

carbon nano-tubes).

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217.

404 CHAPTER 25 Sustainability of Micro-Manufacturing Technologies

Deep X-ray Lithography, 202–20

Commercial applications, 216–17

Micro gears, 217

Micro-spectrometer-mold, 217

Polymer compound refractive

x-ray lenses, 216

Design rule, 213–14

Features of the LIGA process, 215

Introduction, 202–03

LIGA manufacturing steps,

203–11

Irradiation technology,

205–11

Resist deposition, 205

Resist technology, 203–05

PMMA degradation,

208–09

PMMA development,

209–10

Special computer programs

for X-ray,

210–11

Synchrotron source,

205–08

LIGA process and its strengths, 203

Market, 215–16

Mask-technology, 213–14

Metrology, 214–15

Micro-electroplating technology,

211–13

Micro gears - direct metal parts,

217

Micro-spectrometer-Mold, 217

Polymer compound refractive

x-ray lenses, 216

Handling for Micro-Manufacturing,

298–314

Case study, 309–11

Assembly, 311

Inspection, 310

Micro-fabrication, 309

Fundamentals, 298–99

General considerations for

handling, 298

Grasping principles, 306

Serial pick-and-place task, 299

Significant forces at micro-scale,

302

Handling systems, 299–308

Inter-machine transport

systems, 299–301

Conventional transport

equipment, 301

Standard carriers, 300

Intra-machine micro-handling

systems, 302–09

Force sensors, 309

Grasping principles, 306

Grasping requirements, 306

Grippers, 307

Industrial manipulators, 305

Mechanical feeders, 303

Manipulator-based part-

feeders, 304

Sensors and control systems,

308

Significant forces at micro-

scale, 302

Vision sensors, 308

Hot Embossing, 68–89

Applications, 85–87

Micro-fluidic devices, 86

Micro-needles, 87

Micro-optical devices, 85

Introduction, 68–69

Fresnel lenses, 69

LIGA, 69

Micro reaction injection

molding, 69

Nanoimprint Lithography, 70

Replication processes, 68

RIM, 69

Tensile testing machine, 69

Hot embossing process, 70–71

Adhesion, 70

Characteristics of hot

embossing, 71

Cooling, 71

Demolding, 71

Double-sided embossing, 71

Force controlled molding, 70

Glass transition temperature, 71

Holding time, 70

Packing pressure, 70

Packing time, 70, 71

Residual layer, 70

Single sided hot embossing, 70

Substrate plate, 70

Thickness polymer foil, 70

Vacuum, 70

Velocity controlled molding, 70

Process Variations, 71–77

Double-sided Molding, 72

Adjustment mold halves, 72

Misalignment, 72

Through holes, 72

Hot Punching, 74

Cutting holes, 75

Embossing alignment, 75

Embossing, two step, 74

Glass transition

temperature, 75

Matrix, 75

Release agent, 75

Shearing process, 75

Multi-Layer Molding, 72

Polymer stack, 72

Separation by peeling, 72

Roller embossing, 76

Cylinder mold method, 76

Flat mold method, 77

Role-to-role embossing, 76

Roller nanoimprint-

lithography, 76

Roller speed, 77

INDEX

405

Roller temperature, 77

Thermoforming by hot

embossing, 75

Demolding by peeling, 76

Film thickness, 75

LCP, 75

Material combinations, 75

Molding temperatures, 75

PEEK, 75

Through-holes, 73

Residual layer, 73

Squeeze flow, 73

Substrate, flexible, 73

Materials, 77–78

Aggregate states of polymers,

77, 78

Amorphous polymer, 77

Glass transition range, 77

Melting range, 77

Molding window, 77

Semicrystalline polymer, 77

Shear modulus, 78

Thermal behavior, 77

Thermoplastic polymers, 77

Transitions ranges, 78

Outlook, 88

Automation, 88

Cost effectiveness, 88

Standadization, 88

Techniques, 77–79

Commercial machines, 79

EVG, 79

Jenoptik Mikrotechnik, 79

Wickert Press, 79

Components, 77–78

Alignment system, 78

Controlling system, 78

Heating system, 77

Hot embossing machine, 77

Hot embossing tool, 77

Mold insert, 78

Vacuum chamber, 77

Tools, 79–85

Basic tool for hot embossing, 81

Air gap, 81

Clamping system, 82

Cooling block, 81

Heating, electrical, 81

Prestressed spring, 81

Temperture distribution, 82

Thermal mass, 81

Micro-structured mold inserts,

Conductivity, 84

Demolding angles, 84

E-beam lithography, 84

EDM, 84

LIGA, 85

Mechanical machining, 84

PDMS, 84

Requirements for molding,

83, 84

Surface roughness, 84

Undercuts, 84

UV-lithography, 84

X-Ray-lithography, 85

Yield stress, 84

Mold insert integration, 79

Tool tasks, 80

In-situ Testing of Materials, 331–43

Case-study, 340–42

Comparison, 341–42

Length scale, 340, 342

LIGA, 331

Micro-compression, 340–42

Micro-tension, 340–42

Nickel, 340–42

Plastic properties, 341

Size-effect, 342

Compression tests, 334–335

Buckle, 335

Loadcell, 334

Piezo-actuator, 334

Pillar, 334

Stress/strain curve, 335

Tip, 334–35

Image analysis, 338–39

Algorithms, 339

Tracking motion, 339

Materials, 332

Mechanical properties, 331–43

Micro and nano scale, 331–43

Nano-indentation, 335–38

Contact depth, 337

Displacement, 336–37

Hardenss, 337–38

Indenter, 337–38

Load, 336

SEM-micro-indenter, 338

Young’s modulus, 337

SEM, 331–43

SEM image, 333–40

Tensile testing, 332–34

Mechanical clamping, 333

Propagation of cracks, 333

Sample dimension, 333

Stress/strain curve, 332–33

Testing in SEM, 332

Integration, 332

SEM chamber, 332

Setup, 332

Vacuum, 332

Laser-Assisted Micro-Forming,

162–73

Introduction, 162

Processes, 164–73

Burr, 165

Cold forming, 165

Compressive strength, 164

De-Embossing, 167

Elastic deformation, 164

Embossing, 167

Female die, 164

Fracture zone, 164

glass-transition temperature,

167

Gliding planes, 166

Hot forming, 165

Hybrid Component, 171

LIFTEC, 169

Mold-in technique, 169

Plastic deformation, 164

Post-molding technology, 170

Punch, 164

Recrystallization temperature,

165

Roll-over, 164

406 Index

Shearing zone, 164

Stamping, 164

Strain hardening, 166

Tamman rule, 165

Warm forming, 165

System Technology, 162–64

Axicon, 163

Conductive heating, 162

Convective heating, 162

Inductive heating, 162

Laser heating, 162

Optical path, 163

Pyrometer, 163

Sapphire, 164

Thermocouple, 163

Laser Beam Micro-Joining, 185–201

Laser beam soldering, 185–92

Au Sn solder alloy, 192

Brazing, 185

Electrical contacting of solar

cells, 191

Electro-optical efficiency, 188

Fiber lasers, 188

Flux, 185

Galvanometric scanner, 189

Heating cycle, 186

High power diodes, 187

Laser processing optics, 189

Laser soldered joint, 191

Production cell, 189

Pyrometer, 190

Pyrometric sensor, integrated,

190

Pyrometric signal, 190

Sapphire, metallized, 192

Selective soldering techniques,

187

Solder alloy, 185

Solder joint configuration, 190

Soldering, 185

TLP bonding, 185

Transient liquid phase bonding,

185

Laser beam welding, 193–201

Alternative joining methods,

193

Beam delivery, 194

Butt joint configuration, 200

Classification, 195

Conduction welding, 195

Contamination, 198

Continuous welding, 196

Difficult-to-weld materials,

198

Energy input, 197

Fiber delivery, 194

Fiber laser, 194

Fine mechanics, 198

Footprint, 200

Galvanometric scanner, 194

Gaps, 200

Joint geometries for micro

welding, 193

Keyhole, 200

Nd:YAG, flashlamp pumped,

193

Positioning of the laser beam,

195

Process speed, 197

Pulse forming, 196

SHADOW, 197

Spaced spot welding, 196

Splatters, 198

Spot weld, 193

Spot welding, 195

Thermosonic ribbon bonding,

201

Laser Micro-Structuring, 59–67

Case studies laser micro machining,

65–67

Functional surfaces, 65

Injection moulding tool, 65

Lotus effect, 65

Micro fluidics, 66

Laser ablation basics, 60–62

Absorption Effects, 60–61

Absorption coefficient, 60

Gaussian radiation, 61

Laser ablation depth, 60

Photon-matter-interaction,

Threshod intensity, 61

Thermal effects, 61–62

Nanosecond laser pulses, 61

Pikosecond laser pulses, 61

Pulse duration, 61

Thermal penetration depth,

Threshold fluence, 62

Ultrashort laser processing,

Laser machining principles, 62–64

Mask techniques

Focal length, 63

Imaging, 63

Resolution, 63

Scribing techniques

Galvanometer mirrors, 64

Numerical aperture, 64

Processing diameter, 64

Scanning, 64

Wavelength, 64

Manufacturing Execution System

(MES), 377–93

IT-enabled business processes,

377–78

Customer order process, 377

Product lifecycle process, 377

MES implementation and

integration, 388–390

Equipment automation/

integration, 389

Equipment layer, 388

MES services, 390

MES tasks, 382–388

Data collection and acquisition,

386

Automated data collection,

386

Manual data collection, 386

Semi-automated data

collection, 386

Information management, 387

Advanced Process Control

(APC), 388

Paperless production, 388

Reporting, 388

Workflow management, 388

Labor management, 385

Material management, 384

Lot/Batch, 385

Work in Progress (WiP), 384

Index 407

WiP tracking, 385

Operations/detailed scheduling,

382

Dispatching, 382

Scheduling, 382

Performance analysis, 386

Cycle time, 387

Equipment utilization, 386

Key performance indicators,

386

Overall equipment efficiency

(OEE), 386

Quality management, 387

Fault detection and

classification (FDC), 387

Sampling, 387

Statistical process control

(SPC), 387

Resource management, 383

Maintenance management,

384

Master data, 383

Resource tracking, 382

Production IT overview,

378–82

Hierarchical enterprise model,

378

Operational scenarios, 380

Production IT enterprise

architecture, 380

Generic tasks, 380

Layered architecture, 381

Standards regarding the production

IT, 390–92

Equipment interface standards,

391

General production IT

standards, 391

SEMI equipment interface

standards framework, 392

Micro-Bulk-Forming, 114–29

Die design, 119–25

also see Machine design

Forming processes, 114–15

Bulk-forming, 114

Forming steps, 114–15

Process chain, 114

Machine design, 119–25

Alignment of tooling, 120

Billet preparation, 119

Die system, 120–22

Ejection, 123–24

Flexibility of tools, 121

Handling, 123–24

Press system, 120

Process supervision, 125

Transfer system, 124

Warm forging, 122–23

Micro-tribology, 125–27

Amortons’ Law of friction, 125

Friction, 125–26

Frction coefficient, 126

Lubricant, 127

Micro-size125–27

Size-effect, 125–26

Process analysis, 127–29

Double-can extrusion, 128

FEM, 127

FE simulation, 128

Size-effect, 115–16

Density effect, 115

Scale, 115

Scaling effect, 116

Shape effect, 115

Size, 115

Tolerances, 116

Tool materials, 118–19

Ceramics, 119

Hardness, 118

Powder metallurgical steel,

118–19

Machining, 119

Tungsten carbide, 119

Workpiece materials, 116–18

Amorphous metals, 117–18

BMG, 117

Metallic glass, 117

Properities, 116

Selection of materials, 117

Micro Electrical Discharge Machining

(EDM), 39–58

Applications, 54

Design considerations, 52–54

Material Selection, 53

m-EDM Optimized Design,

52–53

Tool electrodes for m-EDM,

53–54

Economical considerations,

54–56

Introduction, 39

Machine and tools, 49–52

Generator types, 51–52

Adaptive feed control, 52

Relaxation generators,

51–52

Static pulse generators, 51

Machine design, 49–51

Die-sinking EDM machine,

Wire EDM machine,

50–51

Outlooks, 56

Processes, 42–49

Micro die-sinking EDM,

45–47

Dielectric fluid and flushing,

Dimensions and

applications, 46–47

Micro-die sinking

Electrodes, 46

Micro Electrical Discharge

Contouring, 48–49

Dielectric fluid and flushing,

Dimensions and

applications, 49

Electrodes, 48–49

Micro Electrical Discharge

Drilling, 47–48

Dielectric Fluid and flushing,

47–48

Dimensions and

applications, 48

Micro-drilling electrodes, 47

Micro Wire EDM, 43–45

Dielectric Fluid and flushing,

44–45

Dimensions and

applications, 45

Micro-wire Electrodes, 44

Micro-wire Electrical

Discharge grinding, 45

Multiple cutting strategies,

408 Index

Single discharge, 42–43

References, 56–58

Technological competiviness,

54–56

Working principles, 39–42

Dielectric fluid, 41

General flushing strategies, 42

Machining principle of EDM, 39

Process variants, 39–41

Micro-Hydroforming, 146–61

Conclusion, 159

Design considerations, 155

Corner radii, 155

Cross-sections, 155

Expansion, 155

Ratio of wall thickness to outer

diameter, 155

Tolerances for inner dimensions,

155

Hydroforming process design,

152–55

Failures, 152

Buckling, 152, 154

Bursting, 152, 154

Necking, 154

Wrinkling, 152, 154

Forming loads, 152–54

Axial force, 152

Axial stress, 152

Bursting pressure, 154

Calibration pressure, 153

Cirumferential stress, 152

Effective stress, 153

Friction force, 153

Internal pressure, 152

Minimum axial force, 153

Sealing force, 153

Material parameters, 152–53

Ultimate tensile strength,

153

Yield stress, 152

Membrane theory, 152

Process control, 154–55

Rotationally symmetrical

workpiece, 152–53

Shell theory, 152

Size effects, 152

T-piece components, 152, 154

Theory of plasticity, 152

Micro-hydroforming machines,

155–59

Control system, 158

Forming loads, 157

Axial force, 157

Closing force, 157

Internal pressure, 157

Machine concepts, 158

Part handling, 157

Part insertion, 157

Part removal, 157

Press frame, 157

Pressure intensifier, 158

Pressurizing media, 158

Sensors, 158

Spindle-driven pressure

intensifier, 159

Stroke, 157

Micro-hydroforming tools, 155–57

Design of micro-hydroforming

tools, 156

Adjusting plates, 156

Conical punch, 156

Die cavity, 155–56

Ejectors, 156

Part handling, 156

Sealing punches, 156

Tool inserts, 155–56

Loads, 155

Applications, 155

Medical engineering, 155

Micro-fluidic, 155

Micro-mechatronics, 155

Principle of hydroforming, 147

Forming dies, 147

Forming loads, 147

Process chain, 150–52

Bending, 151

Cutting, 152

Hydroforming, 152

Notching, 152

Preforming, 151

Beveled dies, 151

Cross slides, 152

Methods for preforming,

151

Wrinkles, 152

Trimming, 152

Process variants, 147–78

Assembly, 148

Classification, 148

Piercing, 147

T-piece hydroforming, 147

Counter-force, 148

Counter-punch, 147

T-shaped component, 147

Semifinished products, 148–50

Aluminium alloys, 148

Copper alloys, 148

Extruded profiles, 149

Hydroformed micro-part, 149

Magnesium alloys, 149

Material testing methods, 149

Bulge test, 150

Formability, 150

Mechanical expansion

testing, 150

Strain analysis, 149

Yield curve, 150

Sheet materials, 148

Steel alloys, 148

Tubular materials, 148

Annealing, 148

Micro-tubes, 148

Ratio of wall thickness to

outer diameter, 148

Weld seam quality, 149

Micro-Injection-Molding, 90–113

Micro-injection-molding products,

Dimensions, 91

Micro part weight, 91

Tolerances, 91

Micro-injection-molding

technology, 91

Conventional machine, 92

Cooling, 92

Ejection, 92

Injection, 92

Packing phase, 92

Plastification, 92

Runner system, 93

Injection moulding, 92

Index 409

Clamping force, 91

Minimum shot weight, 92

Micro injection moulding

machine, 94

Injection plunger, 94

Injection speed, 95

Metering plunger, 94

Shut-off valve, 95

Process control, 95

Filling analysis, 96

Flow markers, 100–103

Flow visualization, 97

Length flow test, 99–100

Short shots, 96–98

Process analysis, 101

Cavity injection time, 105

Cavity pressure, 104

Injection pressure, 101

Micro flashes, 104

Process simulation, 109

Heat transfer coefficient, 110

Implementation strategies, 112

Meshing, 110

Polymer rheology, 110

Short shots, 111

Software validation, 110

Weld lines, 106

Micro-Manufacturing Overivew,

1–23

Assembly & packaging, 13

Design considerations, 3

Development & ultilisation

strategies, 18–21

Business, 18

Driving other industries, 20

Integration with other activities,

Life cycle assessment (LCA), 18,

394–404

Manufacturing & supply chain,

Market gateway analysis, 18

Other issues, 21

Technological performance &

maturity level, 20

Dimensions, 3

Examples of micro-parts, 4

Local Features, 3

Manufacturing equipment, 14

See, also Manufacturing system

Manufacturing methods, 7–9

Considerations, 7

List of typical methods &

processes, 9

Manufacturing processes, 8–14

Deposition methods, 12, 287–97

ECM/EDM, 14, 39–58

EDM & Laser assembly, 14,

39–58

Efab, 12

Hybrid processes, 13, 287–97

Laser heating, 11, 162–73

Laser technology, 11, 59–67,

162–73, 185–201

LIGA, 12, 202–20

Mechanical machining, 8,

24–38

Micro-casting, 12, 202–20

Micro-EDM, 9, 39–58

Micro-electrochemical

machining, 10

Micro-embossing, 12, 68–89

Micro-forming, 10, 114–29,

130–45, 146–161, 162–73

Micro-injection moulding, 12,

90–113

Rapid prototyping &

micro-machining, 14

Replication techniques, 11,

68–89, 90–113, 202–20,

241–63

Shape deposition

manufacturing, 12

UPSAMS, 14

Manufacturing System, 14–16

Bench-top machines, 15,

24–38, 68–89, 114–29, 130–45,

146–61

CNC machine, 16, 24–38

Forming of micro-bulk

products, 15, 114–29

Micro-factories, 15

Micro-hydroforming, 16,

146–61

Micro-machining, 16, 24–38

Micro-sheet-forming, 15,

130–45

Miniature systems, 15, 24–38,

114–29, 130–45, 146–61

Multiple-axis machine tool, 16

Multiple-process equipment, 16

Material capability, 5

Material factors, 6

Material properties after

processing, 6

MEMS, 2

Non-MEMS, 2

Process chains, 13, 287–97

Shape capability, 3

Supporting technologies & devices,

3D measurement, 17

Handling, 17, 174–83,

298–314, 315–23

Quality assurance, 17

Sensor system, 17

Tolerance and Surface Quality, 5

Volume production, 6

Micro-Mechanical-Assembly, 174–83

Application example, 180–83

Assembly, 181–82

Gripper, 182

Handling, 181–82

Robot, 182–83

Push button parts, 180–181

Screwdriver, 182–83

Classification of assembly,

176–179

Micro-injection-molding, 179

Micro-joinery, 178

Micro-riveting, Folding and

Clinching, 179–80

Micro-screwing, 176–77

Micro-snap fits, 176

Micro-Velcro, 177

Handling, 180-81 also see

Systematic approach

Introduction, 174–75

Aeembly functions, 174

Challenges in assembly, 175

Handling, 175, 180–81

Micro-products, 175

Systematic approach, 180–81

Micro-Mechanics Modelling,

366–76

410 Index