Oshida Y. Bioscience and Bioengineering of Titanium Materials

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involving elevated temperatures with titanium materials, the joining portion is

appropriately sealed from the ambient atmosphere to avoid unwanted oxidation.

Solder strength normally depends on various factors, such as the solder material’s

mechanical strength, extent and completion of diffusion into base material, pene-

tration and cavity at the soldering interface, and base material’s strength. Heat’s

affect on the base material, as well as the solder, will influence the strength of the

prosthesis after the solder process is completed, and corrosion resistance when the

prosthesis is used in intraoral environment. Soldering is normally done by electro-

resistance soldering, infrared soldering, or plasma soldering, all in an argon atmos-

phere. It is generally believed that casting and soldering are two major technical

difficulties associated with titanium materials, since titanium has a relatively high

melting point and high reactivity with oxygen. In industry, there are three types of

solders used for titanium materials: silver-based, aluminum-based, and eutectic

solders. If appropriate measures are taken in order to control the excessive oxida-

tion, titanium materials can be successfully solder-joined in the dental/medical

fields. These measures might include material factors (using high activity flux and

low melting point solders) and environment factors (non-oxidizing atmosphere

and shorter operation time) [10-111].

10.11. HEAT TREATMENT (HT)

For reducing residual stresses (mostly tensile residual stresses) which was devel-

oped during fabrication, titanium materials are heat-treated – stress relieving. For

improving mechanical properties (ductility), machinability, and structural stability,

titanium products are also heat-treated – annealing. For increasing mechanical

strength, titanium is heat-treated – solution treating and aging. Alpha and near-

alpha titanium alloys can be stress relieved and annealed, but high strength cannot

be developed in these alloys by any type of heat treatment. Beta phase in the com-

mercial beta and metastable beta alloys decomposes at selected elevated tempera-

ture to cause the material strengthen. Phase compositions, sizes and distributions

can be manipulated by heat treatment within certain limits to enhance a specific

property or to attain a range of strength levels [10-112]. For a certain type of tita-

nium alloy, post-welding heat-treatment (PWHT) is recommended. Development

of maximum properties in alpha-beta alloy weldments requires solution treating

followed by rapid quenching and then aging. However, if reduced strength is

acceptable or higher ductility is required, workpieces may be annealed only, after

welding.

The microstructural evolution and attendant strengthening mechanisms in two

novel orthopedic alloy systems, Ti-34Nb-9Zr-8Ta and Ti-13Mo-7Zr-3Fe, have

been compared by Banerjee et al. [10-113]. In the homogenized condition, both

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alloys exhibited a microstructure consisting primarily of a beta-phase matrix with

grain boundary alpha precipitates and a low-volume fraction of intra-granular

alpha precipitates. On aging of the homogenized alloys at 600°C for 4 h, both

alloys exhibited the precipitation of refined scale secondary alpha precipitates

homogeneously in the beta matrix. However, while the hardness of the Ti-13Mo-

7Zr-3Fe alloy marginally increased, that of the Ti-34Nb-9Zr-8Ta alloy decreased

substantially as a result of the age-treatment. In order to understand this difference

in the mechanical properties after ageing, TEM studies were carried out on both

alloys prior to and post aging. It was reported that a metastable B2 ordering in the

Ti-34Nb-9Zr-8Ta alloy was found in the homogenized condition which is

destroyed by the ageing treatment, consequently leading to a decrease in the hard-

ness [10-113].

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Chapter 11

Surface Modifications

11.1. Sandblasting and Surface Texturing 314

11.2. Shot-Peening and Laser-Peening 317

11.3. Chemical, Electrochemical, and Thermal Modifications 319

11.4. Coating 322

11.4.1 Carbon, Glass, Ceramic Coating 322

11.4.2 Hydroxyapatite Coating 324

11.4.3 Ca-P Coating 335

11.4.4 Composite Coating 342

11.4.5 TiN Coating 347

11.4.6 Ti Coating 353

11.4.7 Titania Film and Coating 357

11.5. Porosity Controlled Surface and Texturing 360

11.6. Foamed Metal 363

11.7. Coloring 364

References 364

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