Орлова Г.Д. и др. Английский для бакалавров. Часть II

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в каждом доме.

Он попытался в качестве нити накаливания использовать железную

проволоку. Неудача. Заменил ее угольным стерженьком, но он на воздухе

быстро перегорал. Наконец в 1872 г. Лодыгин поместил угольный стерженек в

стеклянный баллон, из которого даже не выкачивал воздух. Кислород выгорал,

как только уголек накалялся, и дальнейшее свечение происходило в инертной

атмосфере. Еще долгий год труда — и получена новая, более совершенная

конструкция. Теперь в лампе два стерженька. Один горел первые тридцать

минут и выжигал в баллоне кислород, а второй ровно светил еще два с

половиной часа. Именно такими лампами была освещена улица в Петербурге. В

1872 г. А. Н. Лодыгин подает заявку на изобретение лампы накаливания. Через

2 года, в 1874 г., он получает привилегию (патент) на это изобретение, и

Петербургская академия наук присуждает ему Ломоносовскую премию.

На волне ажиотажа вокруг изобретения возникло ‘Товарищество

электрического освещения А. Н. Лодыгин и компания’. Однако дельцы разных

мастей занялись спекуляциями в расчете на будущие огромные прибыли. Они

оставили изобретателя без гроша. Ему пришлось наняться слесарем-

инструментальщиком на металлургический завод.

Но Лодыгина, человека сильной воли, не сломила неудача. В нем про-

должал жить дух первооткрывателя. Работа на металлургическом заводе

натолкнула его на мысль использовать тепло электричества для плавки металла.

Однако в России его идеи не имели успеха. Пришлось уехать в промышленно

развитые страны — Францию, США. Там он построил ряд крупных

электропечей. В США Лодыгин снова вернулся к проблеме ламп накаливания.

Именно он предложил использовать вольфрам — единственный металл, из

которого производятся нити электрических лампочек сегодня.

ПАВЕЛ НИКОЛАЕВИЧ ЯБЛОЧКОВ (1847—1894)

Замечательный русский изобретатель и конструктор Павел Николаевич

Яблочков вошел в историю техники как автор ‘свечи Яблочкова’, ‘русского

света’, ‘северного света’. П. Н. Яблочков с детства отличался пытливым умом,

любил строить, конструировать. В 12 лет придумал угломерный аппарат для

землемерных работ. Окончив военно-инженерное училище, стал сапером, но

вскоре вышел в отставку. Отставной поручик увлекался электротехникой.

Талантливый инженер понимал, какие возможности сулило применение

электричества в военном деле и в гражданской жизни.

В то время уже существовали дуговые лампы, правда, несовершенные.

Идея создать электрическое освещение увлекает его настолько, что он

бросает работу, на свои скромные средства открывает в Москве лабораторию и

начинает опыты. Вскоре он понял: нужно найти простой способ регулирования

расстояния между угольными стержнями, тогда вольтова дуга будет ярко,

ровно светить. А решение действительно было близко. Оно было гениально по

своей простоте. Оказалось, не нужно изобретать хитроумные устройства для

равномерного сближения выгоравших угольных стержней. Достаточно было их

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поставить вертикально, параллельно, изолировав друг от друга каолиновой

прокладкой определенной толщины. На вершинах стержней он закрепил

своеобразный запал из металла, плохо проводящего ток. И запылала ровным,

ярким светом ‘свеча Яблочкова’. 23 марта 1876 г. в Париже он получил патент

на свое изобретение. Вскоре Яблочков пришел еще к одному гениальному

решению: он стал питать ‘русский свет’ переменным током так, как это

происходит сегодня.

В последующие годы своей жизни П. Н. Яблочков посвящает свой талант

созданию генераторов электрического тока — динамо-машин и гальванических

элементов.

Text B. ELECTRONICS IN THE INDUSTRIAL AGE

In 1873 James Clerk Maxwell published his famous treatise on electricity and

magnetism. Being a theoretician, he developed four equations which explained all the

experimental results in electricity and magnetism observed up until that time, and his

equations have withstood the test of time and continue to serve as a basis for all

electromagnetic calculations. His equations inspired Hertz to experiment with

electromagnetic radiation.

In 1895 A. Popov and in 1899 Marconi demonstrated the first wireless

communication systems. Wireless communication got the boost with the invention of

the triode by De Forest in 1906 and the development of practical radio circuits by

Armstrong.

Engineers having developed radio circuits, research laboratories turned their

attention to the transmission of video as well as audio, and practical television

systems were developed in the 1930s. During World War II electronic systems were

developed for radar, sonar, fire control, navigation, communications, computation,

and data processing. Shortly after the war the computer industry was born.

In 1947 Bardeen, Brattain, and Shockley invented the transistor. This device

could perform all the functions of a vacuum tube triode with much lower device

power dissipation.

Two more profound inventions occurred shortly thereafter. Kilby and Noyce

invented the integrated circuit in 1959. Secondly, the ruby, gas, and semiconductor

lasers were invented in 1959, 1960 and 1961, respectively. The integrated circuit

allowed for a 10

or more increase in circuit density, decrease in device cost, decrease

in device power, and increase in circuit reliability.

With the invention of the laser a few communication experts recognized the

bandwidth potential of light wave communication. Transmission of light waves in the

atmosphere proved unreliable, and so attention was focused on light wave

transmission over glass fibers. The development of low-loss optical fibers followed.

Today most long distance calls are transmitted by optical fibers.

======================VOCABULARY===================

treatise, n трактат, научный труд

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equation, n уравнение

withstand, v (withstood) противостоять, выдержать

inspire, v вдохновлять

wireless, n радио

wireless, a беспроволочный

get the boost получить поддержку;

получить известность

circuit, n цепь, контур; схема; сеть

vacuum tube электронная лампа

fire control управление огнем

power dissipation рассеяние мощности

occur, v случаться, происходить

integrated circuit интегральная схема

ruby, n рубин

semiconductor, n полупроводник

respectively, adv соответственно;

в указанном порядке

density, n плотность, компактность

reliability, n надежность, прочность

fiber (fibre), n волокно

======================================================

I. Make sure you know the words given above.

II. Read the following words. Pay attention to the stress displacement:

magnet – magnetic, atom – atomic, electron – electronic, dynamo – dynamic,

theory – theoretic, biology – biological, history – historical, mechanism – mechanics.

III. Read the text ‘Electronics in the Industrial Age’. Find out what inventions

the following dates deal with:

1873, 1895, 1947, 1959, 1960, 1961.

IV. Say if the following statements are true (T) or false (F). Consult the text

‘Electronics in the Industrial Age’.

1. In 1873 James Clerk Maxwell published his famous treatise on philosophy.

2. Maxwell developed equations which serve as a basis for all electromagnetic

calculations.

3. The computer industry was born before World War I.

4. The integrated circuit was invented in 1969.

5. With the invention of the IC electronic devices have become cheaper and

more reliable.

6. Today most long distance calls are transmitted by wire.

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V. Find in the text ‘Electronics in the Industrial Age’ sentences with Participle I

and Participle II. State their forms and functions. Translate the sentences.

VI. Match the names and the inventions

1) Maxwell a) the integrated circuit

2) Hertz b) the invention of the triode

3) A. Popov and Marconi c) four equations for electro-magnetic calculations

4) De Forest d) electromagnetic radiation

5) Bardeen, Brattain and

Shockley

e) wireless communication system

6) Kilby and Noyce f) the transistor

VII. Retell the text ‘Electronics in the Industrial Age’.

VIII. Read the following text without a dictionary. Try to understand it.

The path to Popov’s great discovery was marked by the investigations of many

scientists in different countries.

Popov’s scientific accomplishment was the culmination of the efforts of several

generations of scientists, whose works make up the early history of radio which

began with the investigations of Faraday. Faraday’s discovery of electromagnetic

rotation and electromagnetic induction laid the foundation of present-day electrical

engineering.

His natural-scientific conceptions created a revolution in the understanding of

electrical phenomena, and are extremely important because they directed all attention

to the medium surrounding the electrified body. Faraday’s theory of magnetic and

electric lines of force proved to be exceedingly fruitful, and served as a starting point

for J. C. Maxwell to deduce mathematically (and Hertz to detect experimentally) the

existence of free electric waves. Later it was found that as early as 1832 Faraday

himself was close to what triumphed in science more than half a century later.

Faraday’s scientific views were developed by his successor Maxwell, who

worked in many fields of physics, mechanics, and even astronomy. However, his

chief works are investigations in electromagnetism and in the kinetic theory of gases.

Continuing Faraday’s work, Maxwell subjected his ideas to mathematical treatment

and arrived at far-reaching conclusions when he advanced the electromagnetic theory

of light, one of the greatest achievements of science of the 19

century. Maxwell

considered light to be an electromagnetic phenomenon; he predicted mathematically

that electric waves ought to propagate at a velocity equal to the ratio of

electromagnetic and electrostatic units; as we know, this value coincides with the

velocity of light (approximately 300,000 km. a second).

Of extraordinary value to radio was Maxwell’s conception of free

electromagnetic waves, whose real existence was proved to the scientific world by

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the experimental investigations of Hertz. But this was a whole decade after the death

of J. Clerk Maxwell who did not live to see his views accepted.

Deeply convinced of the truth of the Faraday-Maxwell theory, Hertz set himself

the task of proving experimentally the existence of free electromagnetic waves; he

established the fact that they are governed by the same laws (reflection, refraction

and polarization) as light waves. One of the most brilliant experimenters in the

history of natural science (let us not forget that he had not yet reached the age of 37

when he died), Hertz made experiments that served as a basis for the invention of

wireless telegraphy. These experiments had to do with the Hertz vibrator and

resonator described in his first work entitled ‘Concerning Extremely Rapid Electric

Oscillations’.

The scientific value of Hertz’ discovery, however, is not the less though he did

not find a practical application for it. Hertz’ discovery was immediately recognized

throughout the world, and Popov was one of the first to begin elaborating further this

extremely important scientific advancement. He read papers and delivered public

lectures, always pointing out that this new achievement of science is not only of

theoretical value, that it may find a practical application.

May 7 (April 25, old style) 1895 is considered to be the date of the invention of

radio. It was on this day that Popov read a paper in the Physics Department of the

Russian Physical and Chemical Society entitled ‘On the Relation of Metal Powders to

Electric Oscillations’. However, Popov arrived at his discovery much earlier; not at

once, of course, but as a result of extensive research which he had conducted over a

period of several years studying electric waves and oscillations. The May 7

address

was a legal confirmation of Popov’s right as the inventor of wireless telegraphy.

Popov was undoubtedly an original and experienced experimenter.

But in addition, Popov was the first radio specialist to construct radio

instruments as well as radio stations in Russia. This side of his activities was above

all closely connected with the Navy, the most prominent representatives of which

valued Popov especially as a practical specialist in installing radio in the Navy.

In March 1897, he delivered a lecture at the Kronstadt Naval Officers’ Club,

dealing with the possibility of wireless telegraphy through the use of his method.

Popov’s project was well received and was approved by the higher authorities.

The year of 1897 was that of a considerable victory for the inventor of radio,

who began experimenting on a large scale.

The first radiogram was received on the island of Gogland on January 24. It was

an order of the Head of the Chief Naval Staff, Vice-Admiral Avelan, on the rendering

of aid to Finnish fishermen who had been carried out to sea on an ice-floe. It ran as

follows :

‘To the commander of the ice-breaker Yermak’.

‘An ice-floe with 50 fishermen on it broke away near Lavensari. Render

immediate aid to save these people’.

The accident was reported by telephone to St. Petersburg, and from there a

telegram was sent to Kotka, whence the order was radioed to Gogland. The chief of

the Gogland station, Zalevsky, wrote that the report was received clearly, and was

immediately passed on to the ‘Yermak’. At four the next morning the Yermak set out

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on the search for the men and returned at 5 o’clock in the afternoon with all of them

on board.

News of the fishermen being saved from imminent death through the use of

wireless telegraphy, which conveyed to the Yermak the message, spread throughout

Russia.

The very next day after the saving of the fishermen Popov was swamped with

telegrams of congratulation expressing pride and admiration for this achievement of

Russian science. The victory of Gogland also belonged to Makarov who designed the

Yermak and on whose initiative it was built.

All the more dear to Popov were the lines of Makarov’s telegram of

congratulation sent to him on January 26. ‘On behalf of all the Kronstadt sailors I

heartily congratulate you on the brilliant success of your invention. The opening up

of communications by wireless telegraphy between Kotka and Gogland over a

distance of 43 versts is a victory of the greatest scientific importance’.

IX. Read the text again. Identify the key words and write them out.

X. Find the key sentence in each paragraph of the text given above.

XI. Use the key words and key sentences to make up a summary of the text.

XII. Suggest a headline to the text above.

Text C. THE INFORMATION AGE

In the past few centuries technological developments have created isolated

information industries. The major inventions and industries which developed as a

result of these inventions are listed in Table 1. Electrical and computer engineers

play a major role in four of these six industries, and they will likely play a major

role in all six industries.

Table 1. Evolution of the Information Industry.

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Invention Industry

Printing Press

Publishing

The Electric Battery

Telegraph/Telephone

Film

Photography/Cinema

Electronics

Broadcasting/Cable

Computer

Data Processing

Laser/Fiber

Broadband Systems

These inventions have greatly impacted our lives through the creation of new

industries and the easy access to information around the world. However, none of

these discoveries has impacted our lives as greatly as the integrated circuit (IC). The

IC has created the information age.

Already the IC has had a profound impact on our society. The slide rule,

mechanical calculator, and typewriter industries are dead and their products have

been relegated to museums. Text, data, graphics, voice and video can be

electronically processed, transmitted, and stored at a cost most citizens can afford.

The boundaries between the traditional information industries are being blurred, and

their survival is in doubt. Already numerous collaborative agreements and mergers

are taking place among these industries. Will the photographic industry survive in the

information age? Will the printing industry go the way of the dinosaur? Telephone,

cable, and broadcasting networks are fighting for survival in the information age.

Most likely the traditional information industries will be realigned along the

functional lines in Table 2. There is no doubt that we will witness profound changes

in the traditional information industries over the next decade.

Even more profound is the impact that the IC has had on

global politics, e.g. the formation of the European Economic

Community at the expense of national autonomy, the push

toward open markets, the rise of global industries, and the

decline of manufacturing jobs.

Wars will be fought in the information age, both bloody

and unbloody, but ultimately in the information age we will see more transparent

national boundaries, less national autonomy, and a higher world order. This is so

because with the powerful technologies at our disposal, this is the only path to

survival as a people. It will not be an easy road. Change never is.

Globally industry and governments are going through a period of rebirth, a

period of a global renaissance. This renaissance is the result of the scientific

discoveries and technological advances of the past two centuries, the IC having

perhaps the most profound impact on society that the world has ever experienced.

Table 2.

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The New Information Industry Players

1) Generation and production of information

2) Transmission networks

3) Information processing systems

4) Information storage systems

5) Display system

I. Read the text ‘The Information Age’. Write out all the words you don’t

know. Look them up in the dictionary.

II. Find in the text ‘The Information Age’ the sentence with the Absolute

Participle Construction. Translate it.

III. Make a written translation of the text ‘The Information Age’.

IV. Speak about the evolution of the information industry. Use Table 1.

CONVERSATION

TOWN

=====================VOCABULARY====================

acquire, v приобретать, овладевать

appearance, n внешний вид, наружность

applied arts прикладное искусство

blacksmith, n кузнец

busy, a оживленный (об улице)

circus, n цирк

craftsman, n мастер, ремесленник

defend, v оборонять, защищать

dirty, a грязный

district, n район, округ

enterprise, n промышленное предприятие

eternal, a вечный

eternal flame вечный огонь

issue, v выходить, выпускать, издавать

to issue a decree издать указ

goods, n товар, товары

gunsmith, n оружейный мастер

inhabitant, n житель, обитатель

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level, n уровень

native, a родной

palace, n дворец

population, n население

region, n край, область, район (страны)

rifle, n винтовка, нарезное оружие

sights, n достопримечательности

sightseeing, n осмотр достопримечательностей

to go sightseeing осматривать достопримечательности

skill, n искусство, мастерство, умение

society, n общество

square, n площадь, сквер

traffic, n движение, транспорт

trade, n торговля; ремесло, профессия

======================================================

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word combinations

to be famous for

to be full of

to be of great interest

to be proud of

to be called after

continuous steel casting

iron and steel works

coal mining industry

metal processing

places of interest

славиться чем-либо

быть наполненным чем-либо

представлять большой интерес

гордиться чем-либо, кем-либо

называть, давать имя

непрерывная разливка стали

металлургический комбинат

горнодобывающая промышленность

металлообработка

достопримечательности

TULA

Situated south of Moscow in the central part of the East European plain

on the Middle Russian Hills, the Tula region covers an area of 25,700km

(1.5% of Russia’s territory). The region’s territory embraces 21 cities and

towns and 50 urban settlements. Total population is 1,840,000, out of which

urban population accounts for 81,4%.

The center of the region is the city of Tula with the population

over half a million. Tula, which is first mentioned in the chronicles in

1146, was founded on the banks of the Upa river.

In the Middle Ages it was the central strategic point in the defense

of Moscow. This had a decisive influence on the specifics of the

region’s industrial development.

Tula has long been famous for its blacksmiths and gunsmiths. The trade of the

blacksmiths began to develop in Tula in the 16

century. Tula blacksmiths

specialized in making rifles The whole families and even streets were engaged in

making this or that part of the rifle. That is why many streets of Tula are still called

after the parts of the rifle – Zamochnaya, Kurkovaya, Stvolnaya, etc.

By the 16

–17

century, Tula had grown into a developed center of weapon-

making crafts and metal treatment. In 1712 following a decree issued by Peter the

Great a state gun-making plant was founded in Tula.

Tula was the first place in Russia to develop ferrous metallurgy and metal-

processing industry. In metal-processing Tula craftsmen acquired great skill. But

most of the enterprises were handicraft artels and small plants producing samovars

and different handmade goods.

With the development of capitalism in Russia industrial enterprises in Tula

increased in number. By the end of the 19

century Tula had about 200 enterprises

with 13 thousand workers.

At present there are many plants and factories in Tula.

Being part of the Central Economic Region, the Tula region has close economic

ties with other regions of the Russian Federation.

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