Nielsen M. Atlas of Human Anatomy
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Left foot
Medial view, anterior to right
Left foot
Anterior view, lateral to right
Left foot
Lateral view, anterior to left
Left foot
Posterior view, lateral to left
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one another. All the tarsal bones were photographed at the same scale so you can see their relative sizes.
The talus is the second largest and most proximal of the tarsal bones. It forms the ankle joint with the
distal end of the leg skeleton. It consists of a cuboid body, a distally directed neck capped by a convex,
oval head, a proximolateral facet for the fi bular malleolus, and a proximal trochlea for the tibia. It articu-
lates with four bones — the tibia, fi bula, calcaneus, and navicular.
The next four pages depict the tarsal bones.
Like the carpals, this is a complex series of
bones that form numerous articulations with
Tarsal Bones - Talus
1 Head
2 Navicular articular surface
3 Anterior facet for calcaneus
4 Neck
5 Middle facet for calcaneus
6 Sulcus tali
7 Body
8 Trochlea of talus
9 Lateral malleolar facet
10 Lateral process
11 Medial malleolar facet
12 Posterior process
13 Groove for flexor hallucis longus
14 Lateral tubercle
15 Medial tubercle
16 Posterior calcaneal articular facet
Left talus
Inferior view, lateral to right
Left talus
Lateral view, anterior to left
Left talus
Posterior view, lateral to right
Left talus
Superior view, lateral to left
Left talus
Medial view, anterior to right
Left talus
Anterior view, lateral to left
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1 Calcaneal tuberosity
2 Calcaneal tubercle
3 Sustentaculum tali
4 Groove for flexor hallucis longus
5 Calcaneal sulcus
6 Tarsal sinus
7 Anterior talar articular surface
8 Middle talar articular surface
9 Posterior talar articular surface
10 Groove for fibularis longus
11 Fibular trochlea
12 Articular surface for cuboid
Its distal end forms a series of articular surfaces with neighboring bones. Its posterior or proximal end is
box-like and forms a roughened calcaneal tubercle at the posterior surface. The calcaneus articulates
with two bones — the talus and the cuboid.
The calcaneus is the largest
bone of the foot and its long axis
parallels the long axis of the foot.
Tarsal Bones - Calcaneus
Left calcaneus
Anterior view, lateral to right
Left calcaneus
Superior view, lateral to left
Left calcaneus
Posterior view, lateral to left
Left calcaneus
Medial view, anterior to right
Left calcaneus
Inferior view, lateral to right
Left calcaneus
Lateral view, anterior to left
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The cuboid bone, like its name suggests, has a cube shape when viewed from above, but has ridges and
grooves on its plantar surface. It is the lateral bone in the distal series of tarsal bones and articulates with
the fourth and fi fth metatarsals. With a good imagination one can visualize the hull of a ship when observ-
ing the navicular bone. This ship-shaped bone is an intermediate bone between the talus and the three
cuneiforms on the medial aspect of the foot.
Tarsal Bones - Cuboid and Navicular
Left cuboid
Superior view, lateral to left
Left cuboid
Inferior view, lateral to right
Left cuboid
Anterior view, lateral to right
Left cuboid
Posterior view, lateral to left
Left cuboid
Medial view, anterior to right
Left cuboid
Lateral view, anterior to left
Left navicular
Superior view, lateral to left
Left navicular
Inferior view, lateral to right
Left navicular
Anterior view, lateral to right
Left navicular
Posterior view, lateral to left
Left navicular
Medial view, anterior to right
Left navicular
Lateral view, anterior to left
Cuboid
1 Groove for fibularis longus
2 Cuboid tuberosity
3 Calcaneal process
4 Articular surface for calcaneus
5 Articular surface for navicular
6 Articular surface for lateral cuneiform
7 Articular surface for fourth metatarsal
8 Articular surface for fifth metatarsal
Navicular
9 Tuberosity
10 Articular surface for talus
11 Articular surface for cuboid
12 Articular surface for medial cuneiform
13 Articular surface for intermediate cuneiform
14 Articular surface for lateral cuneiform
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of the ankle. They articulate with the three medial metatarsal bones. Their wedge shapes contribute to the
formation of the transverse arch of the foot.
The wedge-shaped cunei-
forms are the distal tarsal
bones on the medial aspect
Tarsal Bones - Cuneiforms
Left lateral cuneiform
Superior view, lateral to left
Left lateral cuneiform
Inferior view, lateral to right
Left lateral cuneiform
Anterior view, lateral to right
Left lateral cuneiform
Posterior view, lateral to left
Left lateral cuneiform
Medial view, anterior to right
Left lateral cuneiform
Lateral view, anterior to left
Left middle cuneiform
Superior view, lateral to left
Left middle cuneiform
Inferior view, lateral to right
Left middle cuneiform
Anterior view, lateral to right
Left middle cuneiform
Posterior view, lateral to left
Left middle cuneiform
Medial view, anterior to right
Left middle cuneiform
Lateral view, anterior to left
Left medial cuneiform
Superior view, lateral to left
Left medial cuneiform
Inferior view, lateral to right
Left medial cuneiform
Anterior view, lateral to right
Left medial cuneiform
Posterior view, lateral to left
Left medial cuneiform
Medial view, anterior to right
Left medial cuneiform
Lateral view, anterior to left
Lateral cuneiform
1 Articular surface for cuboid
2 Articular surface for navicular
3 Articular surface for middle cuneiform
4 Articular surface for second metatarsal
5 Articular surface for third metatarsal
6 Articular surface for fourth metatarsal
Middle cuneiform
7 Articular surface for navicular
8 Articular surface for medial cuneiform
9 Articular surface for lateral cuneiform
10 Articular surface for second metatarsal
Medial cuneiform
11 Articular surface for navicular
12 Articular surface for middle cuneiform
13 Articular surface for second metatarsal
14 Articular surface for first metatarsal
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metatarsal bones are the most distinct. The fi rst metatarsal is short and thick compared to its counter-
parts, while the distinguishing feature of the fi fth metatarsal bone is the projecting tuberosity at its proxi-
mal end.
The fi ve metatarsal bones form the central portion of
the foot skeleton. The three central metatarsals most
closely resemble one another, while the fi rst and fi fth
Metatarsal Bones
1 Base
2 Shaft or body
3 Head
4 Tuberosity of first metatarsal
5 Tuberosity of fifth metatarsal
Left metatarsal bones, numbered I to V from medial to lateral
Dorsal view, lateral to left
Left metatarsal bones, numbered I to V from medial to lateral
Plantar view, lateral to right
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part of the bone. From the base a narrow shaft projects to a rounded head with a trochlear articular sur-
face. The middle and distal phalanges are short bones that can be easily distinguished by their distal
ends. The middle phalanges have a trochlear articular surface on their distal head, while the distal pha-
langes have a broad tuberosity at their distal ends.
Similar in number to the phalanges of the hand, the phalanges of the foot
are much smaller than those of the hand, with the exception of the large
fi rst toe. The proximal phalanges have broad bases that form the widest
Phalanges
1 Base
2 Shaft or body
3 Head
4 Trochlea
5 Tuberosity of distal phalanx
Left phalanges
Dorsal view, lateral to left
Left phalanges
Plantar view, lateral to right
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border. The posterior surface of the bone is smooth and articulates with the femur, while the anterior surface of the
bone is rough by its attachment to the quadriceps tendon.
The patella is the largest sesamoid bone of the body. A sesamoid bone is a bone that forms
within a tendon. The patella occupies the posterior half of the quadriceps tendon just anterior
to the knee joint. It is a disc-like bone with a curved superior margin and a triangular inferior
Patella
1 Base
2 Apex
3 Articular surface
4 Anterior surface
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Articular System7
Joints, simply de ned, are the meeting
places between bones. is simple de nition describes a joint as any place
in the skeleton where one skeletal element contacts another skeletal ele-
ment. It is important to understand that, as a part of this de nition,
the bones never contact each other directly. Instead, there is al-
ways some other connective tissue between the bony contact
surfaces. Joints come in a wide variety of structural junc-
tions, with an accompanying variety of functions.
Because joints have various functions and those
functions do not always deal with movement, it is il-
logical to de ne joints by their movements. e best
method for classifying joints is based on their struc-
ture. Because the structure of joints includes the con-
nective tissues between the neighboring bones, a
classi cation based on the structure of those tissues
is logical. At the simplest level, there are two basic
ways bones connect with one another to form joints.
Either they are connected by solid masses of connec-
tive tissue, or they are bound together by a connective
tissue capsule, which surrounds a lubricated cavity be-
tween the adjoining bones.
Joints formed by a solid core of connective
tissue between the neighboring bones are called
synarthroses. ere are two subcategories of
synarthroses — brous joints, which have connec-
tive tissue cores of connective tissue proper, typi-
cally dense irregular connective tissue, and cartilage
joints, which use some form of cartilage as the
connecting tissue between the bones. e capsu-
lar joints, with their lubricated cavity, are called
diarthroses or synovial joints. ere are nu-
merous subcategories of diarthroses, each
based on the structure and function of their
articular surfaces.
In addition to joints, this chapter will
also illustrate other closely related synovial
structures — bursae and synovial (tendon)
sheaths.
Find more information
about arthrology in
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REALANATOMY
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tissue binding the neighboring bones can vary considerably. Examples of fi brous joints are depicted on this and the facing
page. Gomphoses and sutures (the four different suture types are shown on the opposite page) have a very thin membrane
of collagenous connective tissue anchoring neighboring bony structures to one another. On the other hand, the syndesmo-
ses between the tibia and fi bula — both the interosseous membrane and the tibiofi bular ligaments at the distal end — have
considerably more binding connective tissue. There is also an example of another syndesmosis, the interspinous ligament,
in the next section.
Fibrous joints are synarthrotic joints that
bind bone to bone with collagenous con-
nective tissue. The amount of connective
Synarthrosis - Fibrous Joints
1 Periodontal membrane
2 Crown of tooth
3 Root of tooth
4 Gingiva
5 Mandible
6 Tibia
7 Fibula
8 Interosseous membrane
9 Anterior tibiofibular ligament of tibiofibular syndesmosis
10 Patellar ligament (cut)
Dento-alveolar syndesmosis or gomphosis
Sagittal section of tooth in mandible
Crural skeleton – tibia and fi bula
Anterior view
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