Mullins L.J. Management and organisational behaviour, Seventh edition

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CHAPTER 10 THE NATURE OF LEARNING

The following case is based on research carried out

by Linda Hicks and Gill Norris in 1995. At that time

the programme was being used by a large public

sector organisation, which we have called

Edgeworth. Edgeworth deals with the services for

the community – education, fire service, police,

waste clearance, social services, library services etc.

As part of its training and development policy

and involvement in Opportunity 2000, Edgeworth

had chosen a programme called Springboard to

develop its women employees. The programme,

and Jenny Daisley, set itself a number of aims: to

provide opportunities for women to acknowledge

and value their skills and qualities, to develop their

confidence and to set goals for the future.

The programme consists of a structured workbook

with a series of exercises, case studies and activities

which include the following: goals and objectives;

world about you; knowing yourself; finding support;

the assertive you; more energy – less anxiety; manag-

ing your image; blowing your own trumpet and

making it happen. To support the workbook and

programme, Edgeworth developed small group tuto-

rial sessions and large group workshops. The

programme lasted three months, at the end of which

there was a workshop which celebrated the achieve-

ment of its participants. There were, however, no

formal assessments or any certificates of attainment.

During the course the women were encouraged to

participate fully in the sessions, to openly discuss

their worries, fears, ambitions and goals with the

group. A tutor, who had previously completed the

programme, facilitated the sessions and ensured that

the goals of the workbook were met.

METHOD OF STUDY

Two Springboard cohorts (80 per programme) were

used for the study. One cohort was used for observa-

tion and for piloting the questionnaire. Participants

of the second cohort were asked to complete a ques-

tionnaire at the start of the programme, on the last

day of the programme and three months after the

programme had finished. Only those participants

who completed three questionnaires were used for

comparisons (24 in total).

The first questionnaire asked respondents for

their reasons for enrolling on Springboard, their cur-

rent education and training profile, their current

moods (whether they wished to improve them-

selves, or to realise new goals, etc.).

Evaluating the experience was the purpose of the

second questionnaire and it asked questions about

the content of the programme, focusing on the

workbook, in particular, and on the process of the

training – for example, the quality of the small

group sessions, etc.

Three months later respondents were asked ques-

tions on their work goals, whether they had started

any new education courses and whether on reflection

they felt that Springboard had any lasting impact.

In addition to the Springboard cohort, a control

group of Edgeworth employees were sampled (500

in total). These employees would be facing the same

challenges and changes within the organisation as

the Springboard participants but without the training

intervention. Only those employees who completed

three questionnaires were used, which totalled 45

males and 73 females.

FINDINGS

Enjoyment

The participants clearly enjoyed the Springboard

experience. All reported that the programme had

been useful to some degree and 75 per cent claimed

they felt differently as a result of the programme.

71 per cent claimed it was ‘just right’. Even when a

negative comment was made, it was against an over-

all background of positive evaluation. These

comments included:

‘I became a new person.’

‘Thank you Springboard for giving me a kick start to

a new career.’

‘A real treat to be able to take time to look at the

way life was going.’

‘I feel I can plan my own future, not just as a wife

and mother, but as an individual who wants more

from work and a better balance at home.’

‘I feel much more positive and happier about life …

I realise I can change the things I am not happy

about.’

425

CASE STUDY 10.1

Springboard to success: staff development in practice

Gill Norris and Linda Hicks

PART 4 THE INDIVIDUAL

Three months later positive feelings were still

prominent although some questioned the impact of

the programme on their future work opportunities:

‘Job changes not materialised. Very glad I attended

Springboard. It developed my assertiveness and

self-worth.’

The desire for self-improvement and to achieve

new goals remained very strong among the partici-

pants and in many ways this demonstrates the

success of the programme in its aim of reinforcing a

sense of self-determination and desire for improve-

ment. Few, however, thought the programme had

any lasting effect on actual work performance,

believing instead that personal skills and their feel-

ings of self-worth were the more permanent effects.

Personal development

Springboard encouraged further training and develop-

ment. More than 50 per cent of participants were

undertaking new programmes by the end of the three

months, implying that learning becomes self-perpet-

uating. Once started, participants became addicted.

Furthermore, Springboard participants were more

likely to undertake an education or training pro-

gramme at the end of the course (54 per cent)

compared to the comparison group (26 per cent

males and 34 per cent females).

New goals

Springboard worked to encourage women to set new

goals. 54 per cent were seeking new jobs by the end

of the programme. This new ambition in the women

signalled changed feelings of self-worth and control.

This compared with 9 per cent males and 15 per cent

females in the comparison group.

Two major catalysts were identified as triggers for

change:

■ Social process. The social process allowed women

to reflect on their current job, talk through their

problems and share experiences. Most women

found the process to be therapeutic, enabling

them to reassess and reconstruct aspects of their

lives. Time away from their desks and in an atmos-

phere which was approved by management was

considered a real bonus.

■ Cognitive reconstruction. With the identification

of the problem undertaken, the social process then

helped to reconstruct their perceptions and act out

new behaviours. The programme provided them

with tools they needed to change unsatisfactory

aspects of their situation and to help in the setting

up of action plans. The women reported changes to

feelings of self-worth and in their abilities to apply

for new jobs and set themselves new goals. They

were more likely than other Edgeworth employees

who had not participated on Springboard to apply

for new jobs and attend further training and devel-

opment courses. Morale also improved among the

women; they enjoyed the network opportunity

and had powerful memories of the process.

BENEFITS FOR THE ORGANISATION

■

The programme is relatively low cost and achieves

a large coverage of women rapidly and effectively.

■ It enhances the reputation of Edgeworth as an

equal opportunities employer by being seen to

take positive steps towards its women employees.

■ It provides enjoyment to a group of staff who

predominantly hold low-graded positions within

the organisation.

■ The programme inculcates ideas and habits

which are useful to the management of the

organisation (time management, action plans).

■ It is self-perpetuating as it encourages former par-

ticipants to become tutors and thus adds further

richness to the development programme of its

women staff.

SOME PROVISOS

At the end of the programme the positive feelings

demonstrated by the women needed to be kept

‘alive’ by Edgeworth. The majority felt that a follow-

up course would be valuable to keep the networks

strong and active. If Edgeworth were to leave the

women ‘high and dry’, the women might start to

plan careers outside the organisation and some of

the organisation benefits would not be realised.

The few negative comments that were made

about the programme tended to focus on the con-

tent of the workbooks and in particular some of the

cases used which could not be related to the

women’s experiences. A typical criticism was that

the cases were ‘far-fetched’ (even though they were

based on real-life histories).

In terms of the process for some women (and a

minority), the small group discussions provoked

anxieties and concerns. The exercises challenge per-

ceptions and attitudes and for some women this

process was uncomfortable.

Case study 10.1 continued

426

IN CONCLUSION

For a relatively low investment in terms of money

and time, Edgeworth has cultivated a tier of well

motivated and action-oriented women who have

enjoyed a shared experience together. The women

realised that there were alternative possibilities to

the way their life was structured and/or they realised

they had skills and capabilities which had been

‘hidden’ beneath the everyday world of work and

home. The programme resulted in women more

likely to take control of their lives with changed

feelings of self-worth and confidence. They were

more likely than the comparison group to apply for

new jobs and to seek out new education and train-

ing opportunities.

Immediate benefits to the organisation are clear

but the extent to which the cognitive process is

developed and then sustained is more difficult to

evaluate. Much depends upon the organisational cli-

mate and whether it can meet the needs of this

more demanding group. The Springboard programme

is clearly making significant contributions to equal

opportunity practice and women who have experi-

enced Springboard, either as participants or tutors,

find it a motivating and beneficial process.

CHAPTER 10 THE NATURE OF LEARNING

YOUR TASKS

(a)

Explain fully why you believe the development

programme has enhanced feelings of morale

and self-worth in the female participants. In your

answer, refer to theories of learning and motivation.

(b) Critically assess the method used in the research

study and explore alternative techniques in evalu-

ating the programme.

such a positive effect if the women had been

working individually through the workbook? Give

reasons for your answer.

(d) What are the strengths and weaknesses of a

women-only programme? Should the programme

be offered to men as well? Justify your answer.

DIAGNOSIS: CURRENT SITUATION

Royal Mail Group is the most recognised postal busi-

ness in the UK. The brands,

104

Royal Mail,

Parcelforce Worldwide and Post Office® are known

and recognised by businesses and domestic con-

sumers alike. The group serves every locality in the

UK and takes pride in its community policies. The

strong service element of the Royal Mail Group is a

key principle that runs through its culture. This case

study focuses on how one of the business units,

Royal Mail, addressed some of its challenges

through participation in a group-wide management

development intervention.

Royal Mail collects, processes and delivers 82 mil-

lion items to 27 million addresses each day.

105

However, such actions are part of the changes that

the group must make if it is to survive in a competi-

tive environment. Although the goals of the

business are simple – the collection and distribution

of letters and parcels – the operation of the

processes and systems are complex. Of great signifi-

cance is the effect of the decisions made by the

postal regulator Postcomm. Postcomm’s aim is to

increase competition and customer choice within

the postal distribution business. The fear for Royal

Mail is that proposals made by Postcomm may

affect their ability to provide a one-price-goes-any-

where service. But, whatever the final decisions

made by the regulator, one detail is clear that

change is going to happen in the future and more

rival organisations will be involved in the postal

service. This means that the Royal Mail has to

sharpen up its pace and willingness to flex to new

challenges. In a news release in November 2003 the

Chairman of Royal Mail Group, Allan Leighton said:

The key task for the rest of this year is to achieve the

operational changes in Royal Mail as repidly as pos-

sible by moving to a single daily delivery, improving

the efficiency of mail centres and streamlining the

transport operation. We can’t afford any delay.

106

CASE STUDY 10.2

Will the mail get through: managing change at the Royal Mail

427

He identified the need for key operational changes

in order to achieve sustainable profitability. The

group’s Chief Executive, Adam Crozier, confirmed

this need for change as the ‘only way we can deliver

long-term sustainable improvements in customer

service, while generating sufficient cash to run our

business’.

107

HOW EASY WILL IT BE FOR ROYAL MAIL TO

INITIATE THE CHANGES?

Currently, Royal Mail is one of the largest employers

of male labour in the UK and of the 210 00 employ-

ees, 81 per cent are male. The average length of

service is high and there are examples of workers

from the same family spanning generations.

Historically, the organisation has operated as a hier-

archy with lines of command and control that

separate the centre (Head Office) where decisions

are made, from its local offices. Decision-making has

tended to be ‘downward’ with instructions provided

for the implementation of processes. This has the

effect of ‘fracturing’ the organisation into segments

and regions into separate parts. One of the conse-

quences of this machine-like bureaucracy is that the

postal workers can feel that they have to react to

and comply with orders rather than take an interest

in, challenge and question what they are doing.

Bureaucracies often generate passive employees who

are not engaged in improving the businesss. In this

environment, discontent can breed powerful infor-

mal leaders and in Royal Mail this has materialised

through unofficial strike action affecting customer

service and profitability.

The core of the business is collecting, sorting and

delivering mail, so it is no surprise that there has

been a heavy concentration in amending and

improving operating systems. Improvement projects

have tended to follow one another with rapid suc-

cession leading to a ‘flooding’ of changes across the

organisation resulting in a certain amount of ‘initia-

tive fatigue’. In addition, changes have tended to be

top down, reinforcing the command and control

style of management.

The current situation at Royal Mail can be sum-

marised thus:

■ history and tradition of being a service provider

with societal significance;

■ community involvement particularly in rural

areas;

■ nostalgia associated with traditional business

model and working practices;

■ bureaucratic organisation with typical command

and control patterns of management;

■ dominated by unskilled male employees;

■ challenging employee relations environment;

■ process-dominated organisation;

■ change in the past has been fragmented, initiative-

based and top down;

■ facing dramatic changes in the external environ-

ment with greater competition and regulator’s

involve

ment.

DEVELOPING A VISION FOR THE FUTURE – WHAT

NEEDS TO HAPPEN

With strong leadership from Allan Leighton and

Adam Crozier, Royal Mail Group is clear about what

needs to be done to achieve renewal of the business.

A key part of this is to re-engage its workforce by

making Royal Mail Group a great place to work. It is

recognised that there has to be culture shift. To

achieve operational success the business has to draw

out everyone’s talents and experiences. To achieve

this, the focus has to change from one based on

processes to one that engages people. Encouraging

involvement in the shaping of the businesss is seen

to be essential in building capability, but it requires a

change in management style.

PART 4 THE INDIVIDUAL

Case study 10.2 continued

428

Photo: Philip Craven/Travel Ink

Alongside this shift in management style the

business intends to focus just on those issues that

will have a significant impact on the business.

Responsibility for decision-making and target set-

ting is transitioning to operational managers in a

move to create greater freedom to act. Where barri-

ers exist, managers will be expected to remove the

blockages and seek support as necessary. In this

new era, it is critical that managers are able to opti-

mise resources and move the business forward by

managing people in clear performance terms.

DEVELOPING THE MANAGERS

108

To achieve the business imperatives the group has

recognised that its managers must be capable in five

key areas:

■ Inspiring people

■ Focusing action

■ Seeking improvements

■ Driving results

■ Taking ownership

A new management development programme has

been created which aims to be a major mechanism

of change. Giving the managers the right skills and

level of confidence to improve business perform-

ance and making Royal Mail Group a great place to

work is a major development thrust. Increasing per-

sonal ownership and accountability is essential for

business objectives to be achieved and for cultural

change and the design of the programme aims to

mirror this new style. The new approach differs

from past programmes in four major ways:

■ Its focus is on core management expertise and in

particular managing people skills.

■ The development activities are more closely tied

to the workplace – in terms of delivery and con-

tent – to assist transfer of learning and provide

immediate business benefits.

■ The programme consists of a variety of develop-

ment activites to appeal to different learning

preferences and circumstances.

■ It consists of core parts that everyone will follow

plus activities tailored to individual managers’

needs.

Designing a portfolio approach, where managers

choose development activities from a selection, not

only targets development effectively but also builds

ownership of develoment needs. Integrating learn-

ing and development into current work challenges

and priorities allows managers to develop as they

make tangible progress in their workplace.

HOW WILL IT HAPPEN?

As this is a very different way of delivering develop-

ment across the business, managers attend a

‘one-off’ launch event, called ‘My Development’.

The event is designed to:

■ introduce managers to the development

programme;

■ provide managers with first-hand experience

of the different development activities available

to them;

■ communicate the value of the managers in sup-

porting the business and reinforce expectations of

managers;

CHAPTER 10 THE NATURE OF LEARNING

429

■ provide an update on current business perform-

ance and priorities from a member of the

executive team;

■ help managers identify their development priori-

ties and how the programme might help.

Managers are also introduced to a Development

Planner that helps them to structure a plan of action

as well as giving them more information about the

various development activities available:

■ Practical workshops – classroom-based training

for delivering high impact issues that require

rapid roll-out in the business such as health and

safety issues, diversity etc. These may be held

away from the workplace but will be focused on

real workplace challenges.

■

Skills modules – 90-minute bite-sized training

events held in the workplace for groups of up

20 people. Dynamic, enjoyable sesssions dedicated

to focused development. Skills sessions focus on

discrete skill sets such as giving feedback, decision-

making, assertiveness, colaborative working etc.

■ Action learning – a group of managers meet over

a period of a few months to work on real issues

that they believe prevent them from doing a

great job. The group listens, supports and chal-

lenges in order to help the manager take action.

The manager is required to reflect and review

action and report progress to the group at subse-

quent meetings.

■ Coaching – external coaches are used to unlock

individual potential to maximise performance.

Working with a coach, managers explore and

tackle important performance issues and leader-

ship challenges.

■ E-learning – managers can access a variety of

learning products to learn online at a time and

pace that suits them. Typical products include:

policy on performance management, conduct

and attendance code, assessing risk, business tar-

gets and the balanced scorecard.

Each business has a separate budget for funding

manager training throughout the year and managers

will automatically have access to a number of these

development options, e.g. attendance on three skills

modules, series of action learning or coaching ses-

sions, access to the skill portfolio on e-learning for

12 months. Although the activities are ‘stand-alone’,

in reality managers are likely to choose ones that

complement each other. So for example, if they are

experiencing difficulties in managing challlenging

situations, they may choose to complete a skills

module while undertaking coaching. They will be

able to use the coaching session to reflect on the

application of their learning in the workshop while

planning a strategy for dealing with the issues.

MAKING IT WORK

The busines is cognisant of the numerous pitfalls

when trying to drive broader cultural change. The

programme could easily be seen as ‘another initiative’

or ‘a nice to have’ rather than an important driver of

business performance. In such a large, geographically

dispersed organisation, it is tough to build consistent

understanding and support across the business. Often

in such cases, senior managers are reluctant to fully

support the programme until they have proof that it

works and is credible. For the participating managers,

the choice of activities and flexibility of the pro-

gramme may be overwhelming and confusing.

Indeed, there is a whole transition to be managed to

truly transfer responsibility for individual develop-

ment from the organisation to the individual.

To counter some of these potential problems con-

tingency plans have been put into action with the

aim of ensuring that the programme is:

■ engaging and credible

■ relevant and impactful

■ part of the day job

■ self-managed

■ simple and easy to access

The best way to demonstrate impact is to evaluate

the programme and steps have been taken early on

to (a) check imact (b) publish the results. Given the

dynamic nature of the programme, a pragmatic

approach has been adopted. A random sample of

managers will be followed over 12–18 months and

performance measures, pre- and post-development,

will be compared across different combinations of

development experiences. Line managers will also

be asked to rate the changes in behaviour in addi-

tion to hard, key performance indicators to provide

an all-round assessment.

FINAL THOUGHTS

The new portfolio of learning opportunities for Royal

Mail Group provides an illustration of innovative

management development practice that has the busi-

ness focus at its centre. By tightening operations and

generating increased profitability, the group is deter-

mined to increase the capabilities of its managers in

PART 4 THE INDIVIDUAL

Case study 10.2 continued

430

CHAPTER 10 THE NATURE OF LEARNING

demonstrating leadership while driving through

results. By championing the organisation as a ‘great

place to work’ the business is conscious of the need to

engage all staff to work together effectively – prof-

itably and enjoyably. Managers have an essential role

to play in changing the culture of the organisation.

The new development programme is a cornerstone of

this change. It insists that managers play an active

role in their role in their own development and uses

key principles of learning in terms of learning prefer-

ences and approach (managers pace their own

development), independence and control (identifying

needs and choosing appropriate mix of learning) and

collaborative working (action learning sets, coaching).

The potential energy and enthusiasm is considerable

and provides confidence to everyone that Royal Mail

Group will achieve its goals. And by releasing this

energy the programme should make the managers’

lives easier by helping them do a better job.

YOUR TASKS

(a) Why has Royal Mail Group decided to tackle

management development as the cornerstone

for change?

(b) How would you sell the programme to suspicious

line managers? What would you say and how

would you say it?

the programme and prevent it from being fully

effective.

(d) Using Royal Mail as an illustration, discuss the

intrinsic problems of implementing change in a

large bureaucratic organisation.

(e) Describe how this case study applies key princi-

ples of learning and suggest ways in which the

programme could be assessed.

431

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CHAPTER 10 THE NATURE OF LEARNING

433

Use the Financial Times to enhance your understanding of the context and practice of management and

organisational behaviour. Refer to articles 11, 14, 23 and 29 in the BUSINESS PRESS section at the end of

the book for relevant reports on the issues explored in this chapter.

To interact effectively (present ourselves and

communicate appropriately, influence

others, work with them in relationships and

groups or lead them) we must have a grasp

of what others are thinking and feeling,

including their motives, beliefs, attitudes

and intentions. In social perception,

accuracy and differentiation are essential

but difficult. Achieving them may be linked

to the complexity of a person’s system of

cognitive constructs.

Maureen Guirdham

Interactive Behaviour at Work, Financial Times Prentice Hall (2002)

THE PROCESS OF PERCEPTION

Laurie Mullins and Linda Hicks

Perceived reality, not actual reality, is the key to

understanding behaviour. How we perceive

others and ourselves is at the root of our

actions and intentions. Understanding the

perceptual process and being aware of its

complexities is essential for developing insight

into managing others. The words we use and

the body language we display communicates

our view of the world. The power of the

perceptual process in guiding our behaviour

needs to be unpacked and understood for

effective relationships with others.

LEARNING OUTCOMES

After completing this chapter you should be able to:

 explain the nature of the perceptual process, and

selectivity in attention and perception;

 detail internal and external factors which provide

meaning to the individual;

 examine the organisation and arrangement of stimuli,

and perceptual illusions;

 identify problems, distortions and bias with particular

regard to the perception of people;

 examine links between perception and communication,

including transactional and body language;

 provide an understanding of women’s position and

status in the organisational world;

 review the importance to managers of the study of

perception and relationships with other people.

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