Mullins L.J. Management and organisational behaviour, Seventh edition

Подождите немного. Документ загружается.

The importance of creativity as a management ability has been creeping onto the man-

agement education agenda over the past decade, lending a so-called soft edge to the

business literature. Morgan’s paper, in which he prophesied that six new competencies

would be required by managers to lead their organisations into the next millennium,

included the ability to be innovative and initiate change.

Other research, indicating

that the reality of what managers do is unlike the conventional wisdom of what they

are supposed to do, revealed that actually managers are already engaging in activities

which are, if not creative, certainly intuitive.

80, 81

For organisations to be innovative, creative solutions are required. Such a statement

is in total harmony with the research on learning organisations. West could be speak-

ing about learning organisations when he says:

Organisations and teams which practice reflexivity and are prepared to continually challenge and

re-define their organisational roles, goals and paradigms, via processes of innovation, develop a

more comprehensive and penetrating intellectual representation of their role. They better antici-

pate and manage problems, and they deal with conflict as a valuable process asset within the

organisation, encouraging effectiveness, growth and development. The most reflexive organisa-

tions are those within which there is a maelstrom of activity, debate, argument, innovation and a

real sense of involvement of all employees.

Creativity is the application of imaginative thought which results in innovative solutions to many

problems.

Imaginative thought may lead to new ways of seeing things which may be novel for

the person or completely novel in time. (Boden distinguishes such novel ideas as either

P-creative (novel to the person) or H-creative (fundamentally novel to the whole of

CHAPTER 10 THE NATURE OF LEARNING

415

Figure 10.6 A cognitive model of learning

(Reproduced from Atkins, M. J., Beattie, J. and Dockrell, W. B. Assessment Issues in Higher Education, Department of Employment (October 1993) p. 51. Crown

CREATIVITY

So, what is

creativity?

human history).

An air of mystique surrounds the study of creativity, as if the flash of

insight or inspiration indicates some special powers or gift. However, Boden

suggests that:

creativity draws crucially on our ordinary abilities. Noticing, remembering, seeing, speaking,

hearing, understanding language and recognising analogies; all these talents of Everyman are

important.

The fascination for Boden is understanding these everyday cognitive functionings.

Given the notion that all individuals have a capacity for creativity, why is it that

some generate more ideas than others? Henry identified a number of traits found in

creative individuals: tolerance for ambiguity, sensitivity, independent thinking, imagi-

nation and a reasonable level of intelligence.

Goodman suggests that:

Actively creative people have a talent for getting to the heart of a problem. They are not confused

by detail and by the need to invoke standard approaches.

There is a consensus in the literature which suggests that such individuals have a desire

for originality, non-conformity and the opportunity to experiment and express new

ideas. A difference can also be drawn between those people who are productive in

terms of the number of ideas they can create and those individuals who have entrepre-

neurial capabilities and are able to bring the ideas to the marketplace.

Stages of creative process

Four stages have emerged in the creative thinking process.

1 Preparation stage Conscious attempt to understand and absorb information.

2 Incubation stage Conscious mind is focused elsewhere but below the level of

consciousness the ideas are being continually combined.

3 Illumination Solution appears suddenly – flash of insight.

4 Verification Solution is tested in a conscious and deliberate way.

Understanding these stages of creativity is acknowledged by many psychologists as being

an essential start to understanding and appreciating one’s own creativity. West

reveals

that managers lack confidence in their ability to be creative and organisations may set up

a vast number of potential inhibitors. It is therefore understandable that creativity is sup-

pressed and devalued. Learning to be creative is encouraged by many writers through

exercises, activities designed to stretch the imagination in wild and novel ways. (See

examples of personal awareness and skills exercises at the end of this chapter.)

Goodman

suggests six common blocks to personal creativity:

■ Perceptual Habitual responses, stereotyping and reliance on past instruc-

tions and experiences.

■ Emotional Fear, anxiety about looking foolish in front of others or making

errors.

■ Process Lack of technique or skills in process; a quick grasp at a solution.

■ Communication Style, method or skills unsuitable for dealing with problem.

■ Environmental

Facilities, stress factors, mind-sets of others which inhibit responses.

■ Cultural Culture and attitudes not facilitative; too risky and open-ended.

A distinction can be made in Goodman’s list between the first four features which are

aspects of the individual’s psyche and repertoire of skills and the last two which

are functions of the culture of the organisation. Unless there is a culture of creativity

and interest in reconstruction, it is more likely that individuals will use their

creativity and resourcefulness outside the organisation, or against the organisation

rather than for the organisation.

416

PART 4 THE INDIVIDUAL

Blocks to

creativity

These blocks to creativity could also be generalised to many learning situations and

not just those that require a creative response. Students embarking on a new educa-

tional course, particularly if they have had a break from studies, will frequently report

concerns which could be categorised under the six headings. In addition, many will

note that the relationships outside the academic environment are important too; the

change process not only has an impact on the student but frequently on the family

and partnerships too.

Strategic management writers are now suggesting that managers will be required to go

beyond rational/logical thinking and use their senses of feeling, creativity and intu-

ition to create businesses for the future. The Creative Model of Management (CM) is:

built on the philosophical assumption that the real world which surrounds the organisation is a

dynamic construct enacted by the members of the organisation over time ... they will require a

diverse group of senior managers able to perceive the world differently, yet able to participate in

a process that transcends these different views to enact a complex organisational reality.

Such a view suggests that personality, sensitivity, creativity and communication skills

are going to be the requirements of managers in the next millennium. (For more infor-

mation on management strategy and resistance to change, see Chapter 22.)

It also requires managers to be proactive in their search for root causes to problems

and be imaginative in solving them. Argyris

usefully distinguished between

single-loop

and double-loop learning in organisational strategy and change. Single-loop learning

concentrates on the symptoms of problems whereas double-loop learning tries to seek

out the deep causes. Differences exist in terms of strategies used to solve problems.

Whereas the devices used to tackle surface issues typically involve tightening control,

double-loop strategies require a questioning approach. Such investigations may lead to

a challenge of the status quo and for Argyris, this open enquiry is a way forward for

solving business problems. This enquiring attitude is in line with work on learning

organisations and the philosophy of the Creative Management school.

There is a growing interest in drawing in the arts and creativity into management

programmes. Preparing stage productions, developing music projects, story telling and

poetry writing are some of the new workshops offered to business. It is claimed that

they provide:

■ rich learning about the creative process and ways in which creativity can be nur-

tured or stifled;

■ ways to develop ‘soft skills’ alongside ‘hard skills’;

■ powerful metaphors to facilitate organisational analysis;

■ multi-sensory and right-brain approaches that balance left-brain thinking, different

learning styles and experiential learning.

So, how are managers to learn and acquire the skills that are necessary for them to be

effective managers? Two current methods of management development which are

being advocated are the skills of mentoring and coaching. One of the joys of man-

aging others is knowing that you have helped others to develop and grow. Managers

have always been informal mentors and coaches – some relishing this role with the

required portfolio of skills, some being more hesitant and others having a negative

influence and acting as a ‘block’ rather than a steer to their subordinates.

CHAPTER 10 THE NATURE OF LEARNING

417

FACILITATING LEARNING

Creating a

culture of

creativity

Recent literature is drawing attention to the skills required to be an effective mentor

and coach and research on this topic is to be welcomed. Certainly the concepts fit in

well with the idea of a ‘learning organisation’ and they fit comfortably with principles

of learning which extol the virtues of action learning and self-development. The con-

cepts are based on the assumption that the trainee recognises her/his training needs

and has the desire to be a willing and active participant in the process. As Clutterbuck

and Wynne suggest:

Mentoring and coaching … represent an increasing trend towards helping the individual take

charge of his or her learning: the primary driver of the acquisition of knowledge and skill

becomes the employee; the coach or mentor is available to give guidance, insight and encour-

agement in the learning process.

There is considerable confusion and differences of opinion amongst individuals within

organisations about the interpretation of these two concepts.

‘Coaching’ is a process that uses deductive, or ‘drawing-out’, techniques to increase

an individual’s ability and willingness in a specific subject or problem area. Ideally the

techniques are used in a structured manner. The coach does not have to be an expert

in the subject.

‘Mentoring’ is a process that uses a mixture of inductive (’pushing-it-in’ or telling)

and deductive ‘drawing-it-out’ or coaching) techniques to increase an individual’s abil-

ity (and sometimes willingness) in a specific subject. Ideally a structured programme is

used. The mentor must be an expert in the subject.

In line with these working definitions, the similarities and differences between

coaching and mentoring can be highlighted.

Coaching

■ uses deductive techniques;

■ the coach does not have to be an expert in the subject. A little knowledge can often

help but it can sometimes be a hindrance;

■ the prime beneficiary is the individual but the organisation also benefits;

■ a coaching session is measured in minutes;

■ can be an off-the-cuff session;

■ usually informal, but can be formal;

■ respect for the coach is usual;

■ rapport between coach and coachee helps.

Mentoring

■ uses a mixture of inductive and deductive techniques;

■ the mentor must be an expert in the subject;

■ the prime beneficiary is the organisation but the individual also benefits;

■ a mentoring programme is measured in months;

■ the mentor must be available almost on demand but at least on a regular basis;

■ more formal but can include informality;

■ respect for the mentor’s knowledge of the subject is essential;

■ rapport between mentor and mentee is essential.

MacLennan

reiterates the benefit of an organisation developing a coaching culture

and he believes that coaching can have an important and revitalising effect on organ-

isations. Kalinauckas and King

also suggest that organisations who wish to grow in the

future invest in one-to-one coaching of the directors:

It is essential, if companies wish to keep ahead of their competitors, that there is a strategy for

continuous, constant improvement in terms of both employee and business development. This

will of necessity involve some coaching.

418

PART 4 THE INDIVIDUAL

Coaching and

mentoring

The trend of having a personal coach has grown over the last few years. Hardingham

believes the act of talking to a supportive outsider can help managers. It gives them

space and time to work out and understand mixed messages they may be hearing in the

workplace. The example she uses is a situation where a manager has been explicitly

asked to collaborate with other managers and yet the culture is competitive and there

are no teambuilding opportunities. She suggests that there is a lack of clarity in the roles

that managers are expected to play and speculates that they have lagged behind the

complex structures, causing ‘double-bind’ ‘no win situations’ where ‘you are damned if

you do and damned if you don’t’.

Coaching is used to help a person move forward. It is about change and focuses on

results. It is therefore no surprise that many organisations are turning to coaching.

Starr

asserts that coaches work from a set of common principles:

■ Maintain a commitment to support the individual.

■ Build the coaching relationship on truth, openness and trust.

■ The coachee is responsible for the results they are generating.

■ The coachee is capable of much better results than they are currently generating.

■ Focus on what the coachee thinks and experiences.

■ Coachees can generate perfect solutions.

■ The converstion is based on equality.

Listening is an essential skill and Starr describes different levels of listening from cos-

metic (it looks as if I am listening, but actually I am someplace else) to deep (more

focused on you that me – getting a sense of who you are). Asking questions, giving sup-

portive feedback and using intuition are all part of the coach’s tool kit. Most coaches

use a framework for the session. A common model is the GROW

model:

■ Goals – What does the coachee want to achieve? How do they want to feel afterwards?

■ Reality – What is the scenario? What is the context? What are the problems? How

have they been handled?

■ Options – What are the possible actions? Which are the most attractive? What has

worked in the past?

■ Wrap-up – What actions are needed? What does success look like? What if things get

in the way?

It is easy for managers to slip into habitual ways of thinking and behaving. Some prob-

lems take the person relentlessly around the same cycle of thoughts. Powerful

questions can stop the circle and help the person to move forward. Coaching can be a

helpful mechanism to engage in change. Grant and Greene

100

conclude that:

Coaching teaches us to monitor our progress and change direction when necessary. As we reach

milestones on the way we need to take time to celebrate our successes. The key to it all is action,

continuous and delibrate action.

Coaching has also caught the attention of critics who charge it as an ‘unregulated,

unstructured and (potentially) unethical process’ unless the process is evidence

based.

101

Chapman

102

in her article urges psychologists to empirically test the contribu-

tion that coaching can make in performance and behaviour.

Mentoring requires a set of skills which include the role of a coach. Clutterbuck and

Wynne

103

define four roles – counsellor, networker, facilitator and coach – and say that

‘at its simplest the mentor is there to help the mentee to learn’. However, research into

mentoring illustrates that organisations need to be fully committed to the idea and

ensure that the individuals are fully prepared for the programme to prevent the onset of

problems. Benefits to be gained are obvious and include managerial effectiveness, com-

munication improvements, the promotion of equal opportunities and self-learning.

CHAPTER 10 THE NATURE OF LEARNING

419

There are three fundamental features of effective study skills:

■ good organisation;

■ active planned sessions; and

■ psychological preparation.

Material is more easily learned when it is associated and organised in as many ways as

possible. In addition to your written and organised notes, use other senses such as:

visual sense (draw maps, plans and posters); auditory sense (make and play back revi-

sion cassette tapes). Using resources effectively (time, library, tutors) is self-evident,

essential, but frequently forgotten.

Learning is enhanced when you distribute your working sessions and avoid cramming.

It is sensible to allow reasonable time breaks and recall sessions. Being constantly

active in your learning – that is, ensuring that you understand the material and that

you are not passively re-writing notes without thinking them through – is also critical.

Constantly testing your knowledge and reviewing material are also good practice.

Setting targets and goals is important for readiness to learn and cutting down procrasti-

nation time. Setting your own psychological contract, by aiming to achieve a goal,

being clear about what you are planning to learn and then rewarding yourself when

you have reached the target, has also proved successful. The environment also pro-

motes this readiness to learn and sitting in the same room or at the same desk can

encourage a positive learning attitude. Being positive, getting rid of anxiety and emo-

tional factors, may be the most difficult, but is probably the most important part of

this preparation process.

The list below is not exhaustive but identifies some of the major areas where it is poss-

ible to apply the theories of learning.

1 Self development

■ Learning what to ‘do’ (for example, skills and knowledge).

■ Learning how to ‘be’ (role behaviour).

■ Learning the ropes (socialisation process and culture) and the social rules (norms

and attitudes).

2 Development of others

■ Personal development – training others and developing their potential (including

skills of mentoring, assessing, advising and coaching.)

■ Development of planned learning events.

3 Development of learning culture

■ Policy development – developing policies for ‘learning organisations’; coping with

changes and development; enabling ‘loose’, creative and lateral thinking.

420

PART 4 THE INDIVIDUAL

LEARNING THEORY APPLIED TO STUDY SKILLS

Organisation

Active planned

sessions

Psychological

preparation

APPLICATIONS OF LEARNING THEORY TO ORGANISATIONS

■ Learning is a feature of all human activity. Encouraging a learning environment is

the responsibility of management. Change has been one of the common features of

organisations over the last decade and the rate of change shows no sign of slowing

down. It is important both for the health of individuals and organisations that people

are enabled to develop their own strategies and contracts for coping with change.

There are many factors influencing the rate and enjoyment of learning.

■ In the past, organisations may have relied largely on the stability of the organisa-

tion’s structure for knowledge transmission. A commitment to improving attitudes and

resources towards learning is now a government strategy. The growth of any society

requires individuals to develop new skills and competencies and to have a flexible atti-

tude to cope with future challenges.

■ Ensuring that information and knowledge flow accurately to the right places in the

organisation at the right time is a managerial task which should be assisted by appro-

priate use of information technology. An appropriate strategy in dealing with the

management of knowledge is a distinguishing feature of effective and capable organisa-

tions. Many of the ideas and concepts now being used in the new term ‘knowledge

management’ have their roots in the learning organisation.

CHAPTER 10 THE NATURE OF LEARNING

CRITICAL REFLECTIONS

‘When I was a boy, my father was so ignorant I could hardly stand to have the old man around.

But when I got to be 21, I was astounded at how much the old man had learned in seven years.’

(Mark Twain)

‘Apart from the known and the unknown, what else is there?’ (Harold Pinter, The Homecoming, 1965)

What are your own views?

To learn effectively means going through all the stages in the (Kolb’s) learning cycle. A person

will not learn from experience if he or she does not reflect on that experience and try to formulate

ideas from it. On the other hand, abstract theories and ideas are no use if they are not translated

into practical actions.

Guerrier, Y. Organizational Behaviour in Hotels and Restaurants: An International Perspective, John Wiley & Sons (1999),

pp. 24–5.

How would you attempt to translate theories and ideas on learning into practical

actions?

‘You learn more out of class than in. And in any case, measuring learning leads to strife not

knowledge.’

Debate.

SYNOPSIS

421

■ Managers need to demonstrate their commitment to their subordinates by encour-

aging a climate of learning and self-development. Reflection and evaluation are critical

aspects of this process. Praise and encouragement have long been established in the

classical theories of learning as leading to more positive, effective outcomes than pun-

ishment and criticism. However, many managers would seem not to use these basic

principles as so often employees report that their managers only notice their mistakes.

■ The importance of creativity as a management ability has been creeping on to the

management education agenda over the past decade. For organisations to be innova-

tive, creative solutions are required. Imaginative thought may lead to new ways of

seeing things which may be novel for the person or completely novel in time.

Managers will be required to use their senses of feeling, creativity and intuition to

create businesses for the future.

■ Effective development, using the benefits of coaching and mentoring, may encour-

age individuals to be responsible for their own learning and may contribute to a

climate of learning. However, establishing training and development as the main

driver in fulfilling organisational strategies is the major challenge for managers. This

may be the only way to create and establish a learning culture.

422

PART 4 THE INDIVIDUAL

1 Compare and contrast the following learning situations:

a Learning to ride a bike/drive a car

b Learning sign language

c Learning academic text

d Learning to be a sales person

e Learning self-awareness

Which learning situation would you find most/least comfortable? Most/least satisfying?

And why?

2 Explain why relationships are important in learning situations.

3 What do you understand by the term knowledge management, and critically evaluate its

importance in securing competitive advantage for organisations?

4 Make a case for your organisation to become a learning organisation. Outline the journey

your organisation will need to make, identifying the milestones it will need to pass.

5 Why are portfolios becoming a popular method of assessing learning and development?

6 Illustrate the following learning concepts with examples from work or college:

a Shaping

b Superstitious learning

c Punishment

d Learning cycle

7 Why is coaching becoming a more common form of management learning in organisa-

tions? Discuss the implications.

REVIEW AND DISCUSSION QUESTIONS

CHAPTER 10 THE NATURE OF LEARNING

Coaching and mentoring: role play

Role play: Manager/Supervisor

You are a manager In the Accounts Department. Graeme, one of your most energetic people,

had asked for some of your time and is coming to see you in a couple of minutes. You’re not

sure what it’s about but you would like to take the opportunity of talking to him about the

amount of work he takes on. He takes on anything that needs doing and is always the first to

volunteer for new projects. This has been particularly so over the past few months and you

are beginning to be concerned about his health. He looks pretty drained at the moment.

You obviously want his enthusiasm to remain high but you don’t want a burnt-out employee!

Decide how you will approach the issue and how you might get him to moderate the workload.

Role play: Employee/Graeme

You have been in the Accounts Department for five years now and really love your job. In fact,

since you and your partner split up a year ago you’ve really thrown yourself into your work.

It’s nothing for you to work late into the evening and quite often at weekends. There are so

many exciting things to get involved with there isn’t enough time to do as much as you’d like.

Besides, your social life isn’t exactly buzzing at the moment and you’ve never got hooked into

any particular hobbies or pastimes.

Your manager has always been full of praise for your performance, consistently giving you a high

rating on your objectives. You’ve also made rapid progress during your time in the department.

You have felt a bit drained recently.

You have asked to see your manager about an exciting new piece of work you’ve heard

about. You’d really like to get involved in it. You don’t want to give up your other stuff though.

ASSIGNMENT

423

PART 4 THE INDIVIDUAL

OBJECTIVES

Completing this exercise should help you to enhance the following skills:

 Explore the nature of the creative process.

 Unlock your creativity and elicit creative responses.

 Recognise how creativity can help solve problems.

EXERCISE

You are required to complete the following creative-thinking exercises and compare your

answers to others in the group.

1 Think of the members of your work group or study group for a few minutes and consider

their personalities, the dynamics of the group, the communication patterns and so on.

– If they were a sports team what would they be?

– If they were a product of nature (flower, tree, bird, animal), what would they be?

– If you were to draw a building representing their major characteristics what would it be?

Fully discuss your answer with others in the group and compare responses.

2 Write a limerick starting with the line:

‘There was a fine manager called …

OR write a six-line poem starting with the words:

‘If only I had …

3 In a small group, identify blocks to your creative thinking and consider ways in which these

blocks could be minimised or eliminated.

4 Think the unthinkable: colleges are to close and further and higher education is being

taken over by individual work stations, PCs and the World Wide Web. In a small group

‘brainstorm’ as many implications of this event as you can and compare your list with

those of other groups.

DISCUSSION

■ How can creativity be best developed and managed within the workplace?

■ Is it possible for all people in workplaces to be creative?

■ What insights does this exercise provide?

Visit our website www.booksites.net/mullins for further questions, annotated weblinks,

case material and Internet research material.

424

PERSONAL AWARENESS AND SKILLS EXERCISE