Mullins L.J. Management and organisational behaviour, Seventh edition
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■ The manager’s relationships with other people – subordinates, superiors, peers
and clients; handling conflict and leadership/power.
■ The manager as part of the organisation – maintenance of the organisation, and
technical and financial control.
■ Criterion of general effectiveness – allocation of resources, achieving purpose, goal
attainment, planning, organising, co-ordinating, controlling.
Langford found that the most frequently mentioned criterion was overall effectiveness,
followed by relationships with subordinates. Next in order of importance were the cri-
teria of decision-making, problem-solving, self-development of the manager and
maintenance of the organisation. Coping with ambiguity and the handling of conflict
were seen as relatively unimportant criteria, although Langford suggests this might be
related to the circumstances at the time when the various works were written.
Whatever the attributes or qualities of a successful manager, or the quality of subordi-
nate staff, one essential underlying criterion is the effective use of time. With many
managers who complain that they do not have sufficient time it may be more a case
that they have failed to organise themselves or their work properly. The most impor-
tant members of staff to be managed are themselves.
Although it is currently a popular topic of attention, the importance of time man-
agement has long been recognised as an inherent feature of management. Drucker
refers to time as the limiting factor for effective executives. Time is a unique resource –
you cannot rent, hire, buy or otherwise obtain more time. The supply of time is totally
inelastic; time is totally irreplaceable and everything requires time.
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Effectiveness and activity
For many managers appearing always to be busy, a cluttered desk and a continual
flurry of activity are outward signs of their effectiveness. The trouble is that such man-
agers may be too busy ‘doing’ rather than thinking about what they, and their staff,
should be doing and how they should be doing it. Activity may be a substitute for
actual achievement. It is important therefore to distinguish effectiveness from activity.
Rees and Porter, for example, suggest that:
Activity-centred behaviour is in any case much more likely to spring from incompetence and/or
insecurity rather than adroit political behaviour. Activity-centred behaviour is likely to aggravate
the position of the manager in the long run rather than ameliorate it.
52
There are a number of suggested procedures and techniques for managing time
53
but
the essential requirements of good time management include:
■ clear objectives;
■ careful forward planning;
■ the definition of priorities and action; and
■ the ability to delegate successfully.
A ‘summary outline’ of the management of time is presented in Figure 7.10.
54
The Chartered Management Institute have published a checklist which explains that:
Good time management has always been an important skill, but it is arguably now more essen-
tial than ever. Factors such as widespread corporate restructuring, accelerating change,
information overload and the need to balance private and working lives have put the squeeze on
managers. Time management is about the effectiveness and efficiency of what you do and how
you do it.
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CHAPTER 7 MANAGERIAL BEHAVIOUR AND EFFECTIVENESS
265
THE MANAGEMENT OF TIME
266
PART 3 THE ROLE OF THE MANAGER
THE MANAGEMENT OF TIME
•
WHY MUST MANAGERS MANAGE
•
THEIR OWN TIME?
•
THEIR STAFF’S TIME
RECORDING TIME
•
for future reference –
• record and keep times for
• specific jobs
•
for estimating and quoting
•
for buying in replacement
• labour – sub-contracting/
• out-sourcing
METHODS/TECHNIQUES FOR
TIME PLANNING
• Network planning for long
•
jobs (and Critical Path Analysis)
• – explore benefits of project
• – management computer software
•
GANTT charts
•
Plan priority sequences
•
Ordered sequences
•
Short-term scheduling
• – consider value/costs of setting
• – up specific ‘jobbing’ capacity for
• – quick repeat order, or
– Fill-in jobs for waiting time
– between longer or larger jobs
MANAGING YOUR TIME
•
Importance of time management
•
Where does time go?
•
Conserving time
•
Time management tools
IMPROVING DEADLINE TIMES
PRODUCTION COMPLETION
DELIVERY DEADLINES
– Changing working practices
– Using better equipment
– Training staff
– Collecting more/better information
MANAGING DEPARTMENTAL TIME
Requires:
•
Responding to external time pressures
•
Maximising the time capacity available
•
Analysing the components of total job time
•
Using time planning techniques
•
Recording time spent
Careful network planning will
assist the manager to
reorganise and reduce time
pressures, eliminate wasted
time and maximise time usage
TIME MANAGEMENT
A systematic step approach to using time
effectively
1 – Analysis of time usage in the past
2 – The time budget in the future
3 – Allocate time to specific tasks
•
Plan and adhere to a weekly time schedule
•
Record activities
4 – Classify activities
MANAGING TIME USAGE
•
Work sampling and time study
• techniques may be applicable
•
Set time standards for jobs
•
with realistic (+/–) allowances
•
Use standard data catalogues for
• estimating job durations
– Give time allowances for
– an end-of-day activity to
– prepare for tomorrow
WHY IS IT IMPORTANT?
•
Managers usually face more jobs than
•
there is time to do them
•
Jobs have different priorities
•
Some jobs have to be done
• and some delegated – which?
PA RETO PRINCIPLE
In any series of events which you do
e.g. your job: 80% of the ouput arises from 20% of your input
(the %s may vary but the principle remains)
e.g. 20% of the customer base leads to 80% of the income
COSTING TIME
•
What is your total cost?
•
How much productive time do you achieve?
•
What utilisation do you obtain?
•
How much would a consultant/teleworker
• /subcontractor charge?
CONSERVING TIME
•
Learn to communicate effectively
•
Train subordinates to listen by
•
Question & Answer techniques
•
Organise meetings effectively –
• don’t just hold them
•
Reduce paperwork (form filling is
• slow, is it all necessary?)
•
Control interruptions
•
Set time objectives for tasks
COMPONENTS OF TOTAL JOB TIME
•
Inherent time – sum of labour time, machine time and handling time
•
Set-up time – time to prepare or tear-down after work; % time
•
wastage reduced by scheduling longer runs
•
Lost time – personal time for breaks, toilet, sickness, holidays etc.
• Technical time – machinery failure or component shortage
•
Learning time – familiarisation with the job. Can only be estimated and
• is often inaccurate
WHERE DOES PRODUCTIVE TIME GO?
•
Routine jobs (minor jobs but important)
•
Regular duties
•
Maintenance role as part of the organisation
•
e.g. – meetings
• – selection/recruitment
• – seeing visitors
•
Special assignments (unpredictable)
•
Creative work (requires time)
WHERE DOES THE REMAINDER GO?
Wasted and lost time due to:–
•
Lack of focus on task
•
(Poor directions/lack of understanding)
•
Failure to delegate
• (Assumes there is someone to delegate to)
•
Interruptions
•
(Should you have an ‘open door’?)
•
Fatigue – losing concentration
•
(Take the breaks especially lunch)
•
Failure to communicate
• – instructions not clear
• – failure to listen
•
Failure to anticipate
• (‘I never thought’)
•
Advance planning can
•
– avoid problems later
•
– anticipate trouble in
• – different situations
•
– allow an overview
• – of the task
FOR EFFECTIVE TIME MANAGEMENT YOU SHOULD:–
•
Establish the KEY TASKS (the six most important
tasks you do)
•
Set your OBJECTIVES (the achievements you are
trying to attain in the key post)
•
Identify PERFORMANCE STANDARDS (the quantifiable
measure of the objectives)
•
Identify CONSTRAINTS (things standing in the way
of your objectives)
•
Decide on ACTION PLANS (ways of removing the constraints)
PA R K INSON’S LAW
– Work expands in such a way as
– to fill the time available
?
Figure 7.10 Summary outline of the management of time
(Reproduced with permission of Training Learning Consultancy Ltd, Bristol, England.)
Manager’s checklist
Stewart suggests that it is often salutary for managers to compare what they think they
do against what happens in practice. Answers to the following questions will help
managers decide what, if anything, they should check, and to review their effective
management of time.
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1 Am I giving adequate attention to current activities, to reviewing the past and to
planning for the future? In particular, am I giving enough thought to the future?
2Am I dividing my time correctly between different aspects of my job? Is there, per-
haps, one part of my job on which I spend too much of my time?
3 Have I changed what I am trying to do, and how I work to allow for the effects of
changes in my work?
4 Am I certain that I am not doing any work that I ought to have delegated?
5Who are the people that I ought to be seeing? Am I spending too much or too little
time with any of them?
6 Do I organise my working day and week, as far as possible, according to priorities, or
do I tend to deal with each problem as it turns up, or even as I think of it, without
stopping to think whether there is something more important that I should be
working on?
7 Am I able to complete a task, or am I constantly interrupted? If the latter, are all
these interruptions an essential part of my work?
There are three questions that managers should ask of each of their activities.
■ Should it be done at all?
■ If so, when should it be done?
■ Should it be delegated?
The need for balance
Despite growing interest in time management it should not be viewed in isolation
from related activities of management such as leadership and delegation. For example,
a key aspect of managerial leadership (discussed in Chapter 8) is visibility. Time man-
agement needs to be balanced against potential benefits from maintaining an
open-door policy or the ‘MBWA’ approach – Management By Walking About.
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When
making a conscious effort to find more time for themselves, managers need to take
account of their availability for consultation with subordinates, superiors or colleagues;
and ensuring effective processes of communication.
Clegg suggests that too much time management is focused on time rather than on
the essential foundation of priorities and personal significance. You cannot build a
time management regime until you understand what you really want to do with your
life including work projects: ‘Until we’ve mastered time machines, time is not subject
to management. The question is, rather, how you are going to manage what you do in
the time available?’
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A recent study by Bruch and Ghoshal suggesting that we should beware of the busy
manager raises the question: ‘Are the least effective executives the ones who look like
they are doing the most?’ They refer to unproductive busyness and what they call
‘active non-action’. After ten years of studying the behaviour of busy managers in
nearly a dozen large companies, Bruch and Ghoshal claim that fully 90 per cent of
managers squander their time in all sorts of ineffective activities.
No doubt, executives are under incredible pressure to perform, and have far too much to do, even
when they work 12-hour days. But the fact is, very few managers use their time as effectively as
CHAPTER 7 MANAGERIAL BEHAVIOUR AND EFFECTIVENESS
267
Beware the
busy manager
they could. They think they’re attending to pressing matters, but they’re really just spinning their
wheels … A mere 10 per cent of managers are purposeful – that is, both highly energetic and
highly focused. They use their time effectively by carefully choosing goals and then taking delib-
erate actions to reach them. Managers that fall into the other groups, by contrast, are usually just
spinning their wheels; some procrastinate, others feel no emotional connection to their work,
and still others are easily distracted from the task at hand. Although they look busy, they lack
either the focus or the energy required for making any sort of meaningful change.
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An example of time management
An example of time management and encouragement for managers to improve their
self-management is given in the case example of the chemical company at the end of
the chapter.
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■ It is the responsibility of managers to manage and to achieve results through the
efforts of other people. This involves the effective management of human resources.
The way in which managers exercise their authority and carry out their responsibilities
is important. The changing nature of the work environment is reflected in changes in
the traditional boss–subordinate relationship. The style of management adopted, and
the behaviour displayed towards subordinate staff, is likely to be conditioned by pre-
dispositions about people, human nature and work.
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PART 3 THE ROLE OF THE MANAGER
CRITICAL REFLECTIONS
A first step in the effective management of other people is confidence in your own ability, and
awareness of your own strengths and weaknesses. Why is it then that so many managers find it
difficult to admit their mistakes, to say sorry or to laugh at themselves? Surely, mea culpa should
be part of the philosophy and language of every successful manager.
What are your own views?
Even if employed full-time by the organization, fewer and fewer people are ‘subordinates’ – even
in fairly low-level jobs. Increasingly they are ‘knowledge workers’. And knowledge workers are
not subordinates; they are ‘associates’. For, once beyond the apprentice stage, knowledge work-
ers must know more about their job than their boss does – or else they are no good at all. In fact,
that they know more about their job than anybody else in the organization is part of the definition
of knowledge workers.
Drucker, P.F. Management Challenges for the 21st Century, Butterworth-Heinemann (1999), p. 18.
How would you, as a senior manager, attempt to manage your staff effectively as
knowledge workers rather than subordinates?
‘The only essential ingredient of a successful manager is the ability to handle people, and to
understand and relate in a caring and meaningful way to the individuals they are managing.’
Debate.
SYNOPSIS
■ One means of describing different styles of management is the Managerial Grid,
now republished as the Leadership Grid®, and the combination of concern for produc-
tion and concern for people. There are five basic combinations with a total of 81
different ‘mixtures’ of concern for production and concern for people. Managers tend
to have one dominant style of management but may switch from one style to another.
The Grid provides a framework in which managers can identify, study and review their
patterns of behaviour, and aid training and development.
■ An organisation is more likely to harness its staffing resources effectively if there is
a participative style of management. Likert identifies a four-fold model of management
systems that can be related to a profile of organisational characteristics. System 4 is
based on the principle of supportive relationships and group processes. Leadership
involves trust and confidence in subordinates. One particular style or system of man-
agement is Management by Objectives (MBO). There are however a number of
limitations and criticisms and, arguably, MBO has now been incorporated into modern
systems of staff appraisal and performance management.
■ There are many aspects to management but one essential ingredient of any success-
ful manager is the ability to handle people effectively. It is important that managers
have a highly developed sense of ‘people perception’ and understand the feelings of
staff, and their needs and expectations. It is people who are being managed, and
people should be considered in human terms. There are a number of basic, underlying
philosophies which are likely to make for the successful management of people and
lead to improved work performance.
■ There is a clear and important need for managerial effectiveness, which can be dis-
tinguished from managerial efficiency and from activity. Effectiveness is concerned with
doing the right things and relates to outputs of the job and to what the manager actu-
ally achieves. Managers are likely to be judged not just on their own performance but
also on results achieved by other staff. The combination of task orientation and rela-
tionship orientation results in four basic styles of managerial behaviour. Each of these
styles can be effective or ineffective depending on the situation in which it is applied.
■ The concept of managerial effectiveness is, however, difficult both to define and to
measure. Broad groups of criteria are: the manager’s work; the manager himself/herself;
relationships with other people; the manager as part of the organisation; together with
an overall criterion of general effectiveness. One essential underlying criterion is the
management of time. With the changing nature of the work organisation, good time
management is arguably more essential than ever. However, studies suggest that activ-
ity may be a substitute for actual achievement and that busy managers are not
necessarily effective managers.
CHAPTER 7 MANAGERIAL BEHAVIOUR AND EFFECTIVENESS
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PART 3 THE ROLE OF THE MANAGER
1 Distinguish between different sets of attitudes and assumptions about people at work that
might be held by managers. Give examples, preferably from your own experience, of how
these different attitudes and assumptions might influence actual managerial behaviour.
2 Using the Blake and Mouton Managerial Grid (now the Leadership Grid), identify your likely
dominant style of behaviour in dealing with subordinate staff. In what situations might you
need to adopt a back-up style of behaviour and what style is that likely to be?
3 Critically assess the value and relevance today of Management by Objectives (MBO) as a
means of improving organisational performance.
4 From your own experience, explain fully a situation which you believe demonstrates an
effective way of dealing with subordinate staff. To what extent can you relate this situation
to the application of theories or principles of management?
5 Discuss what you see as the most important considerations in adopting a people-centred
approach to management. What do you understand by the culture of management?
6 How would you attempt to distinguish between an effective and an ineffective manager?
Give specific examples of the criteria you would apply to assess the effectiveness of a par-
ticular managerial job of your choice.
7 Explain Reddin’s 3-D model of managerial behaviour. Give a practical example of situ-
ations which demonstrate (i) a more effective style, and (ii) a less effective style.
8 Debate critically what you believe are the essential features relating to the effective man-
agement of time.
Principle of Supportive Relationships Questionnaire
To test whether a superior’s (and the organisation’s) behaviour is supportive, consider the
following questions.
a How much confidence and trust do you feel your superior has in you? How much do you
have in your superior?
b To what extent does your boss convey to you a feeling of confidence that you can do your
job successfully? Does your boss expect the ‘impossible’ and fully believe you can and will
do it?
c To what extent is your superior interested in helping you to achieve and maintain a good
income?
d To what extent does your superior try to understand your problems and do something
about them?
e How much is your superior really interested in helping you with your personal and family
problems?
ASSIGNMENT 1
REVIEW AND DISCUSSION QUESTIONS
CHAPTER 7 MANAGERIAL BEHAVIOUR AND EFFECTIVENESS
271
f How much help do you get from your superior in doing your work?
(i) How much interest in training you and helping you learn better ways of doing your work?
(ii) How much help for you to solve your problems constructively – not telling you the
answer but helping you think through your problems?
(iii) To what extent does your superior see that you get the supplies, budget, equipment,
etc., you need to do your job well?
g To what extent is your superior interested in helping you get the training which will assist
you in being promoted?
h
To what extent does your superior try to keep you informed about matters related to your job?
i How fully does your superior share information with you about the company, its financial
condition, earnings, etc., or keep such information to himself/herself?
j Does your superior ask your opinion when a problem comes up which involves your work?
Does your superior value your ideas and seek them and endeavour to use them?
k Is your superior friendly and easily approached?
l To what extent is your superior generous in the credit and recognition given to others for the
accomplishments and contributions rather than seeking to claim all the credit personally?
In self-selecting groups of three or four, visit a work organisation of your choice, preferably
one that is well known to at least one member of your group.
a Using Likert’s short form of profile of organisational characteristics, investigate the
organisational variables and circle what you believe to be the most accurate answer for
each of the 18 questions.
b Make clear any necessary assumptions, and where possible give brief supporting reasons
for your choice of answers.
c Summarise the extent to which your answers suggest a clear inclination towards one par-
ticular model of management system.
d Explain the conclusions you draw from your investigation and the pattern of your answers.
ASSIGNMENT 2
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PART 3 THE ROLE OF THE MANAGER
OBJECTIVES
Completing this exercise should help you to enhance the following skills:
Evaluate your own preferred style of management.
Examine and review those factors that influence decisions about management style.
Gain a deeper appreciation of how situational factors might influence managerial style.
EXERCISE
You are required to complete the ‘Your Management Style’ questionnaire. Move quickly and
do not think too deeply about each question but give your first immediate response.
Your Management Style Questionnaire
There are 10 pairs of statements. Assign a weight from 0 to 10 to each statements to show
the relative strength of your belief in the statements in each pair. The points assigned for each
pair must total 10 in each case. Be as honest with yourself as you can and resist the natural
tendency to respond as you would ‘like to think things are’. This instrument is not a test.
There are no right or wrong answers. It is designed to be a stimulus for personal reflection
and discussion.
1 It’s only human nature for people to do as little work as they
can get away with.
–––––––––––
(A)
When people avoid work, it’s usually because their work has been
deprived of its meaning.
–––––––––––
(B)
10
2 If employees have access to any information they want, they tend to
have better attitudes and behave more responsibly.
–––––––––––
(C)
If employees have access to more information than they need to
do their immediate tasks, they will usually misuse it.
–––––––––––
(D)
10
3 One problem in asking for the ideas of employees is that their
perspective is too limited for their suggestions to be of much value.
–––––––––––
(E)
Asking employees for their ideas broadens their perspective
and results in the development of useful suggestions.
–––––––––––
(F)
10
4 If people don’t use much imagination and ingenuity on the job,
it’s probably because relatively few people have much of either.
–––––––––––
(G)
Most people are imaginative and creative but may not show it
because of limitations imposed by supervision and the job.
–––––––––––
(H)
10
5 People tend to raise their stakes if they are accountable for their own
behaviour and for correcting their own mistakes.
–––––––––––
(I)
People tend to lower their stakes if they are not punished for their
misbehaviour and mistakes.
–––––––––––
(J)
10
PERSONAL AWARENESS AND SKILLS EXERCISE
CHAPTER 7 MANAGERIAL BEHAVIOUR AND EFFECTIVENESS
273
6 It’s better to give people both good and bad news because most
employees want the whole story, no matter how painful. ––––––––––– (K)
It’s better to withhold unfavourable news about business because
most employees really want to hear only the good news. ––––––––––– (L)
10
7 Because a supervisor is entitled to more respect than those below him
or her in the organisation, it weakens the supervisor’s prestige to admit
that a subordinate was right and he or she was wrong. ––––––––––– (M)
Because people at all levels are entitled to equal respect, a
supervisor’s prestige is increased when he or she supports this
principle by admitting that a subordinate was right and he or she
was wrong. ––––––––––– (N)
10
8 If you give people enough money, they are less likely to be
concerned with such intangibles as responsibility and recognition. ––––––––––– (O)
If you give people interesting and challenging work, they are less
likely to complain about such things as pay and supplemental benefits. ––––––––––– (P)
10
9 If people are to set their own goals and standards of performance, they
tend to set them higher than the boss would. ––––––––––– (Q)
If people are allowed to set their own goals and standards of
performance, they tend to set them lower that the boss would. ––––––––––– (R)
10
10 The more knowledge and freedom people have regarding their jobs,
the more controls are needed to keep them in line. ––––––––––– (S)
The more knowledge and freedom people have regarding their jobs,
the fewer controls are needed to ensure satisfactory job performance. ––––––––––– (T)
10
Source: Adapted from M. Scott Myers, Every Employee a Manager (New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1970).
DISCUSSION
■ Did the responses from some of your colleagues surprise you and if so why?
■ Explain with supporting examples how situational factors might influence a person’s pre-
ferred style of management.
■ What conclusions do you draw from this exercise? Having discussed results with col-
leagues would you change any of your responses, and if so, why?
Visit our website www.booksites.net/mullins for further questions, annotated weblinks,
case material and Internet research material.
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PART 3 THE ROLE OF THE MANAGER
CASE EXAMPLE
Chemical company
When, in the mid 1980s, Mike joined the Group as
training manager, his aim was to establish a culture
that would focus on serving the customer and
encouraging employees to solve their own prob-
lems, and also help them to make their own
decisions within their areas of work responsibility.
He remembers that operators at the company’s
process plants ‘used to be expected to put their
brains on the coat hanger when they came to work.
Virtually, you couldn’t close a pump without the
works manager’s approval.’
Supervisors, he recalls, were too ready to divert
from their own priority work to do jobs that oper-
ators ought to be doing. The superintendents would
spend time on problems well within the capabilities
of the supervisors to solve, and would turn to the
plant manager for help with their own problems.
There was a constant spiralling down, Mike says.
This was tolerable if everyone reverted to their ori-
ginal positions and responsibilities when a crisis
ended. But some plants were constantly in crisis.
‘Everyone was looking after other people’s jobs
rather than their own.’
So, Mike, now the group’s human resources
manager, turned for help to the concept of time man-
agement. Importantly, he considered it as the warp and
weft of the group’s much larger training effort.
‘I saw time management as an enabling tech-
nique,’ he says, ‘one that would interface with other
courses such as assertiveness training while encour-
aging people to make the time to step back and
think more clearly about their jobs.’
In the last two years the group has run 15 of Time/
system’s two-day courses at its headquarters for some
300 employees at home and abroad. Participants
have ranged from plant managers to first line super-
visors, and from scientists in the 400-strong technical
division to technicians and administrative personnel.
Mike believes that linking the concept of time
management to other elements of company training
has proved highly successful, pointing to the results
at a large plant near Hartlepool engaged in experi-
menting with a special process, to replace the
existing process, currently accounting for 90 per
cent of the company’s production worldwide. The
new process will radically reduce environmentally
damaging effluent.
Mike confirms that there has been an improve-
ment in work culture and practice at the plant.
At another location about 50 of the plant’s
520 staff, at first-line supervisor level and above,
have been on the time management course. Mike
asserts that because supervisors now sit down to
prioritise their time, they aren’t so ready with reflex
responses to operators’ inessential requests for help.
In effect, through their ‘A’ Time training, they have
reassessed their own priorities.
When it comes to time management, extensive
use is made of Time/system’s planning books.
David, plant manager, who carries his wherever he
goes, uses the lunch hour to remind himself of his
schedule for the rest of the day and to plan the fol-
lowing day’s activities. Early each morning he
convenes a meeting of his superintendents and
supervisors, to review what has happened in the
plant in the previous 24 hours.
He says that because so many people at supervi-
sor level and above use a common format for their
notes and planning, there is less chance of anything
important being overlooked. And because there is
not much need to refer back to files, the daily
review and planning meetings are speeded up.
The job of John, at the central laboratory, is to
provide mathematical and statistical support to the
work of the technical division. ‘I was astounded to
discover,’ he says, ‘that it was possible to decide my
own priorities, structure them into my forward
planning and organise my work week around them.’
The course made him realise that much of his
overwork was of his own making.
‘I couldn’t say “no” to requests for assistance
from other departments. I imagined that if I turned
people down they were going to be so aggrieved
that they would never come back with another
problem, and eventually I wouldn’t have a reason
for my existence.’
His own priority work focused on reaching a deci-
sion whether to build some computer software
in-house for use in the plant in Malaysia, or whether to
rely entirely on bought-in software packages. It was a
decision which had to be made by the end of January.
To reduce interruptions to his ‘A’ Time he began
saying ‘no’ – ‘it wasn’t as difficult as I had thought’. He
even told one internal customer that he couldn’t help
him solve his problem for another three months.