Mullins L.J. Management and organisational behaviour, Seventh edition
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CHAPTER 7 MANAGERIAL BEHAVIOUR AND EFFECTIVENESS
275
Time management training has helped him to be
more assertive, he insists. ‘And because I couldn’t
turn every customer down, I also had to learn more
effective delegation.’
Another ‘backroom boy’ who looked afresh at his
working day, and became more assertive as a result,
is David, who has been with the company more
than 30 years.
He attended the training without high expecta-
tions. But it prompted him to analyse his job and he
found that up to 40 per cent of his time was being
spent talking with customers and responding to
their needs. The other 60 per cent was devoted to
long-term aims of improving the service his depart-
ment offers, keeping up with new techniques and
developing new methods.
That was satisfactory, he decided, so long as the
ratio remained around 60/40. ‘To keep it like that I
began to query the difference between “urgent” and
“important” when requests for attention came in.
Every customer says his problem is important. But is
it genuinely urgent?’
In a service department, as David points out, you
have to respond to requests for service with a smile.
‘But that doesn’t mean abandoning your critical fac-
ulties, and failing to set priorities.’
‘Time management training taught me that many of
our problems were self-generated. Rather than devoting
so much time reacting to the problems thrown up by
the new computer system, we should have spent more
time ensuring smooth administration.’
It comes down, as Mike suggests, to taking the
time to think more clearly about the job, analyse it
and set priorities. Time management is about
making time, but also filling it productively.
(Reprinted with the permission of The Institute of Administrative
Management.)
The library in Labworth Street is located in an inner
city area of the local authority. While small and in
rather old premises, it has been popular over the years
with residents of the local community, who have
looked to it as a community focal point. The library is
also well thought of by local authority officials.
The staff has consisted of the Chief Librarian,
four qualified Librarians and three Library
Assistants, all of whom have worked well together
with a high degree of mutual co-operation by, for
example, voluntarily exchanging shifts to accom-
modate the domestic situations of a colleague. The
staff have often curtailed their breaks when the
needs of library clients have required it. The library
has been open on Monday to Friday from 9.00 to
12.00 and 2.00 to 6.00. When closed, time has been
spent on staff training, administrative investigations
and book restocking. Regular returns have also had
to be made to the local authority as part of the
latter’s information gathering and performance
monitoring role.
That was the situation up to six months ago,
when a new person, Rita Jones, was appointed in
charge of the library. She is determined to make the
library service even more efficient, believing that
such a strategy is absolutely necessary in a climate
CASE STUDY 7.1
Bringing management to book: how to manage a library
British Library: a major seat of learning
Photo: The British Library
PART 3 THE ROLE OF THE MANAGER
of debate over the library service being considered
for transfer to the private sector.
At the outset she felt that the methods by which
the staff operated had to be changed. She instructed
staff that the informal switching of shifts had to
cease and that any change in rosters had to be
approved by her in advance. She had noticed that
staff used to spend a considerable amount of time
talking to the public socially, rather than just on
matters concerned with the library service, and
instructions were issued that this had to cease: ‘Time
could not be wasted on informal discussion.’ More
effort also had to be given to improving the infor-
mation flow to the local authority, to provide
evidence of the library’s efficiency.
Over a relatively short period of time, the atmos-
phere within the library changed. The staff seemed to
lose some of their enthusiasm, manifested in late
arrival for work. On some occasions the library did not
open on time because of confusion over shift patterns.
The incidence of days off sick increased, and relations
between staff deteriorated as they worked purely in
accordance with their job descriptions. The overall
attitude of the staff impacted on the quality of service
to customers, who began complaining to local council-
lors of poor service from library staff – such as long
queues at the desk, abrupt service at the inquiry point,
books not being on the correct shelves, and inefficient
operation of the book reservation system
. The reputa-
tion of the library and the use of services was clearly
in decline.
In response to concerns expressed by officials,
Rita Jones explained that she was endeavouring to
improve the system in the library and that
inevitably there were some short-term problems.
She believed that, in the long run, the situation
would improve. She recognised that, in spite of
financial constraints, the budget for stock and
staffing costs was adequate.
Case study 7.1 continued
YOUR TASKS
In order to assist Rita Jones in tackling the problems
arising in her organisation, prepare for her a memo-
randum of advice clearly setting out the management
issues you see arising from the case, and the related
alternative actions she might take to resolve these
matters.
276
Tony Jackson was first employed in a busy branch
office of a building society on a Youth Training
Scheme but left after two years because there was no
permanent position available at that time. However,
nine months later and following a period of contin-
ual rapid growth in business a new position was
established in the branch. Jackson applied and got
the job. After speaking on the telephone to the per-
sonnel department at head office, Mary Rogers the
branch manager told her staff that she had always
got on well with Tony Jackson. He seemed very
bright, did everything asked of him and never
caused her any trouble.
Jane Taylor had been employed with the branch
for the past four years, since leaving sixth form col-
lege. Her main duties were those of a cashier and
assisting with mortgage advance accounts. Two
weeks before Jackson was due to start work Mary
Rogers asked to see her.
‘From now on, Jane, I would like you to act as
senior branch assistant. I need someone to take
some of the weight off my shoulders. Your main
task will be to be responsible for the quality and
accuracy of the work of the staff and to look after
things when I’m not here.’
‘Well ... er ... thank you, Miss Rogers. This is
unexpected. It sounds exciting, but I wonder if ...’
‘Oh, I know you can manage, Jane,’ continued
Mary Rogers. ‘You know I tend to rely on you
already. Anyway I’ve arranged for you to attend a
refresher course at head office the week after next.
It’s all about our systems and procedures, and new
CASE STUDY 7.2
As safe as houses: branch management in a building society
CHAPTER 7 MANAGERIAL BEHAVIOUR AND EFFECTIVENESS
ideas on automated technology, I think they called
it. I am sure you will cope. And I know the extra
money for the job will be helpful, won’t it?’
‘Yes, that’s true enough – the money will cer-
tainly be helpful – but ...’
‘Good, that’s fine then. I’m glad we got that set-
tled. Now you must excuse me,’ said Mary Rogers
standing up. ‘I have to attend to these returns due at
head office by the end of next week. Then I have
some new ideas for introducing even more business
and providing a detailed analysis schedule of
advances that I am working on. And I am due to see
Pat Gray at the solicitors some time. Always plenty
to do, Jane. We must have another chat sometime.’
As Jane left the manager’s office she reflected
upon the extra money. With the new house and a
large mortgage it would be very welcome.
Approximately two months later
Jane Taylor is speaking with Mary Rogers in her office.
‘I am sorry to trouble you, Miss Rogers, but it
seems that Tony Jackson and I may have a clash of
personalities.’
‘What do you mean, Jane?’ asked Mary Rogers.
‘Putting my own feelings to one side, I made a
conscious effort not to let it affect my work or
responsibiities. But he does not accept jobs I give him
without a fuss and tries to pass his work onto the
YTS. He also tries to embarrass other members of staff
when they are serving customers,’ explained Jane.
‘How do you mean he embarrasses you?’
‘Among other things, he shouts to other assis-
tants at the far end of the office and refers to
customers by nicknames to try and make us laugh.’
‘Oh dear, well we can’t have that, can we now,
Jane? What have you done about it?’
‘I did try to tell him about it and told him not to
be so stupid and childish, but it didn’t seem to do
any good.’
‘All right, Jane, you had better leave it to me,’
sighed Mary Rogers. ‘I suppose I had better see what
I can do. In the meanwhile I think you should try to
learn to exercise your authority more.’
Lunchtime, three weeks later
Jane Taylor is with a friend in a local pub.
‘What’s the matter, Jane? You seem a bit down
lately. You’re not still annoyed about that assistant,
are you?’ asked the friend.
‘It’s not just that, but, oh I don’t know…but, yes it
does upset me,’ replied Jane. ‘You remember I told
you about me seeing the branch manager; well, after-
wards I had another go at Jackson. I told him to
concentrate on his own work, but this is often below
standard and when I showed him his mistakes he just
said, “What do you expect, I’m only human.”’
‘But you didn’t just leave it like that?’ inquired
the friend.
‘No, a couple of days later to try and overcome
the problem I took him to the staff kitchen. I told
him we all had to work together and as assistant
manager I had a responsibility to keep the office
running smoothly, and that an effort should be
made for all of us to get on with each other. If not, I
would take the matter further and report it to Miss
Rogers. He just shrugged his shoulders and said,
“Yeah, all right, let’s go and see Mary.’’’
‘So then what happened?’ asked the friend
expectantly.
‘His reaction was unexpected. It threw me a bit. I
think I said something like “when I’m ready” and
walked away. Mind you, his work did seem to
improve for a time. But then last week I told him I
needed his help with this urgent job and he got all
huffy with me. When I told him it was about time
he grew up and stopped behaving like that he just
said, “If you treat me like a piece of dirt, I’ll behave
like a piece of dirt’’ or words to that effect.’
‘So did you go to see Miss Rogers, then?’ the
friend asked.
‘I was going to. But, no, not yet. I know I really
should go and see her again sometime before too
long,’ replied Jane. ‘Anyhow, sorry, must dash now.
We are still so busy at work – business seems to be
growing all the time. See you again sometime.’
Later that same week
Mary Rogers is on the telephone to head office.
‘…By the way, I have a member of staff we
appointed who I think would benefit from a
reminder about the importance of good supervision.
I see you are running a course on Human Relations
next month. Can you do your usual perfect organisa-
tion and fit her in? At least we can suggest she might
like to attend. She can be a bit prickly at times but I
am sure with all your experience you will know how
to use the best words when you write to her.’
Ten days later
Jane Taylor meets her friend in the public house
again.
‘I’m glad to see you, Veronica. I was hoping I
might find you here,’ Jane said to her friend.
‘What’s up, work still troubling you?’ asked
Veronica. ‘I seem to remember you were going to
sort things out with the manager. What did she do
about that assistant of yours?’
‘Yes, I was thinking of going to see her, but then
Miss Rogers called me in to see her. She said that she
had spoken with Tony Jackson and explained that as
senior assistant I had more experience and authority
than Tony, and that he should do as he was asked
from now on.’
277
PART 3 THE ROLE OF THE MANAGER
‘Good! Quite right too. That’s the way it should
be,’ said Veronica. ‘So what’s the matter now?’
‘Well his concentration and work had appeared
to improve again but his attitude got even worse.
Then this last week Miss Rogers has been off sick
and I am temporarily in charge of the office once
again. I usually distribute the work equally in the
morning and then carry out the branch manager’s
duties. Sometimes work comes in during the day
and I distribute that straight away. When I leave
work in Jackson’s tray he usually “tuts” or makes
some sort of sarcastic comment as I am returning to
the manager’s office. It is so unsettling and you can
sense an unpleasant atmosphere in the whole office.
And it looks like another assistant, Graham Wilkins,
is thinking of leaving. That would be a pity. He is so
good at his job. I don’t know what to do next. Oh,
and I have also been told about a course on manage-
ment skills in a couple of weeks at head office. I
suppose I shall have to go.’
Case study 7.2 continued
YOUR TASKS
(a) Discuss the various issues of managerial behav-
iour and related matters raised by this case study.
(b) Explain what actions you think should be taken in
order to help improve the situation. Give support-
ing reasons.
1. Macken, G. ‘Taking An Holistic Approach’, Professional
Manager, May 1997, p. 7.
2. Stewart, R. The Reality of Management, Third edition,
Butterworth Heinemann (1999), p. 190.
3. Greenhalgh, L. ‘Managers Face Up to the New Era’ in
Pickford, J. (ed.) Financial Times Mastering Management
2.0, Financial Times Prentice Hall (2001), p. 17.
4. McGregor, D. The Human Side of Enterprise, Penguin
(1987).
5. Sieff, M. (Lord Sieff of Brimpton) Management the
Marks & Spencer Way, Fontana Collins (1991), pp.
144–5.
6. Townsend, R. Further Up the Organisation, Coronet
Books (1985), pp. 168–9.
7. See, for example: Mullins, L. J. ‘Management and
Managerial Behaviour’, International Journal of
Hospitality Management, vol. 4, no. 1, 1985, pp. 39–41.
8. Ouchi, W. G. Theory Z: How American Business Can
Meet the Japanese Challenge, Addison-Wesley (1981), p.
4.
9. Tse, K. K. Marks & Spencer, Pergamon Press (1985).
10. See, for example: Sheldrake, J. Management Theory:
From Taylorism to Japanization, International Thomson
Business Press (1996). See also, Hunt, B. ‘The New
Battlegrounds For Capitalism’, in Pickford, J. (ed.)
Financial Times Mastering Management 2.0, Financial
Times Prentice Hall (2001), pp. 11–15.
11. For a detailed discussion on Japanese management
practices, see: Hannagan, T. Management: Concepts and
Practices, Third edition, Financial Times Prentice Hall
(2002).
12. Heller, R. In Search of European Excellence,
HarperCollins Business (1997), p. 138.
13. Blake, R. R. and Mouton, J. S. The Managerial Grid III,
Gulf Publishing Company (1985).
14. Blake, R. R. and McCanse, A. A. Leadership Dilemmas –
Grid Solutions, Gulf Publishing Company (1991).
15. Lester, T. ‘Taking Guard on the Grid’, Management
Today, March 1991, pp. 93–6.
16. Newborough, G. ‘People vs Production’, The British
Journal of Administrative Management, May/June 1999,
pp. 13–14h.
17. Crainer, S. and Dearlove, D. (eds) Financial Times
Handbook of Management, Second edition, Financial
Times Prentice Hall (2001), p. 364.
18. Likert, R. New Patterns of Management, McGraw-Hill
(1961).
19. Likert, R. and Likert, J. G. New Ways of Managing
Conflict, McGraw-Hill (1976).
20. Drucker, P. F. The Practice of Management, Heinemann
Professional (1989).
21. Crainer, S. Key Management Ideas: Thinkers that
Changed the Management World, Third edition,
Financial Times Prentice Hall (1998), p. 75.
22. Rodgers, R. and Hunter, J. E. ‘Impact of Management
by Objectives on Organizational Productivity’, Journal
of Applied Psychology Monograph, vol. 76, no. 2, 1991,
pp. 322–36.
23. Heller, R. In Search of European Excellence,
HarperCollins Business (1997), p. 252.
24. Naylor, J. Management, Financial Times Pitman
Publishing (1999), p. 285.
25. Hannagan, T. Management: Concepts and Practices, Third
edition, Financial Times Prentice Hall (2002), p. 177.
26. See, for example: Blanchard, K. and Johnson, S. The
One Minute Manager, HarperCollins Business (2000).
NOTES AND REFERENCES
278
CHAPTER 7 MANAGERIAL BEHAVIOUR AND EFFECTIVENESS
279
27. Gratton, L. Living Strategy: Putting People at the Heart of
Corporate Purpose, Financial Times Prentice Hall
(2000), p. xiii.
28. Freemantle, D. ‘The People Factor’, Management Today,
December 1985, p. 68.
29. Peters, T. J. and Waterman, R. H. In Search of Excellence,
Harper & Row (1982), p. 238.
30. Gratton, L. Living Strategy: Putting People at the Heart of
Corporate Purpose, Financial Times Prentice Hall
(2000), p. 206.
31. Mann, S. ‘Give a little gain a lot’, Professional Manager,
March 1999, p. 32.
32. Castellanos, F. ‘Getting the rewards’, Read.Me, IBM
team publication for the UK and Ireland, May/June
1998, no. 11, p. 32.
33. Fletcher, W. ‘Good Listener, Better Manager’,
Management Today, January 2000, p. 30.
34.
Adams, J. S. ‘Injustice in Social Exchange’ abridged in
Steers, R. M. and Porter, L. W. Motivation and Work
Behavior, Second edition, McGraw-Hill (1979), pp. 107–24.
35. ‘Management Insights, ‘The Virgin Factor’, Management
Today, May 2000.
36. Waterman, R. The Frontiers of Excellence, Nicholas
Brealey (1994).
37. See, for example: Beggs, A. ‘The Real Meaning of
Empowerment’, Financial Times Mastering Management
Review, September 1997, pp. 14–15.
38. Green, J. ‘When Was Your Management style
Last Applauded?’, Chartered Secretary, December 1998,
pp. 28–9.
39. Galunic, G. and Weeks, J. ‘Survey – Mastering People
Management’, Financial Times, 12 November 2001.
40. Walmsley, C. J. Your Future Looks Bright, Preston Beach
(2002).
41. Ash, M. K. On People Management, Macdonald & Co.
(1985).
42. Ibid., p. xix.
43. Drucker, P. The Practice of Management, Heinemann
Professional (1989), p. 3.
44. Foppen, J. W. ‘Knowledge Leadership’ in Chowdhury,
S. Management 21C, Financial Times Prentice Hall
(2000), p. 160–1.
45. ‘Untapped Potential: The barriers to optimum corpo-
rate productivity’, Proudfoot Consulting, October
2002. For a summary, see: ‘News Update’, Manager,
The British Journal of Administrative Management, No.
34, New Year 2003, p. 6.
46 See for example, Allen, T. ‘Hands Off Local
Government’, Management Today, September 1993, p. 5.
47. Stewart, R. The Reality of Management, Third edition,
Butterworth Heinemann (1999), p. 179.
48. Luthans, F. ‘Successful vs. Effective Real Managers’,
The Academy of Management Executive, vol. 11, no. 2,
1988, pp. 127–32.
49. Reddin, W. J. Managerial Effectiveness, McGraw-Hill
(1970).
50. Langford, V. ‘Managerial Effectiveness: A Review of the
Literature’, in Brodie, M. and Bennett, R. (eds)
Perspectives of Managerial Effectiveness, Thames Valley
Regional Management Centre (1979).
51. Drucker, P. F. The Effective Executive, Heinemann
Professional (1988).
52. Rees, W. D. and Porter, C. Skills of Management, Fifth
edition, Thomson Learning (2001), p. 22.
53. See, for example: Johns, T. Perfect Time Management,
Century Business (1993) and Van de Vliet, A. ‘Beat
The Time Bandits’, Management Today, May 1997, pp.
90–2.
54. Training Learning Consultancy Ltd, Bristol, England.
55. ‘Managing Your Time Effectively’, Management
Checklist 016, Chartered Management Institute, 2001.
56. Stewart, R. Managers and Their Jobs, Second edition,
Macmillan (1988), p. 123.
57. Coates, J. ‘It is Legitimate to be Unavailable’, Industrial
and Commercial Training, vol. 22, no. 5, 1990, pp.
8–11; for a fuller account of ‘MBWA’, see: Peters, T. J.
and Austin, N. K. A Passion for Excellence, William
Collins (1985).
58. Clegg, B. ‘How to Have Time for Life’, Professional
Manager, January 2000, pp. 18–20.
59. Bruch, H. and Ghoshal, S. ‘Beware the Busy Manager’,
Harvard Business Review, February 2002, pp. 62–9.
60. Butcher, D. ‘Personal Productivity is a Matter of
Timing’, The British Journal of Administrative
Management, October 1991, pp. 19–20.
FT
Use the Financial Times to enhance your understanding of the context and practice of management and
organisational behaviour. Refer to articles 7, 18, 20, 22 and 26 in the BUSINESS PRESS section at the end
of the book for relevant reports on the issues explored in this chapter.
In the twenty-first century, leaders must create
an atmosphere in which people believe in
strategy, believe in management decisions, and
believe in their work. Once people believe in
management decisions, there is an excitement
within an organization. Such an atmosphere
makesan organization prosper. Successful
leaders create this sort of environment both
inside and outside the organization.
Subir Chowdhury
Management 21C, Financial Times Prentice Hall (2000)
THE NATURE OF LEADERSHIP
An essential part of management is co-ordinating
the activities of people and guiding their efforts
towards the goals and objectives of the
organisation. This involves the process of
leadership and the choice of an appropriate form
of action and behaviour. Leadership is a central
feature of organisational performance. The
manager must understand the nature of
leadership influence and factors which determine
relationships with other people, and the
effectiveness of the leadership relationship.
LEARNING OUTCOMES
After completing this chapter you should be able to:
explain the meaning and importance of leadership in
work organisations;
contrast patterns of managerial leadership and main
approaches to and studies of leadership;
detail the nature of managerial leadership and the
exercise of leadership power and influence;
examine leadership as an aspect of behaviour, and
different styles of leadership;
assess contingency theories of leadership and
situational factors which determine the characteristics of
leadership;
evaluate the nature and main components of
transformational leadership and inspirational leadership;
review the variables which determine effective
managerial leadership and development.
8
Photo: Rajesh Jantilal/AFP/Getty Images
There are many ways of looking at leadership and many interpretations of its meaning.
Leadership might be interpreted in simple terms, such as ‘getting others to follow’ or ‘get-
ting people to do things willingly’, or interpreted more specifically, for example as ‘the
use of authority in decision-making’. It may be exercised as an attribute of position, or
because of personal knowledge or wisdom. Leadership might be based on a function of
personality, or it can be seen as a behavioural category. It may also be viewed in terms of
the role of the leaders and their ability to achieve effective performance from others.
Taffinder suggests that everyone has a theory but, although we know quite a lot
about management, we do not know as much about leadership.
1
Handy believes that:
like motivation, the search for the definitive solution to the leadership problem has proved to be
another endless quest for the Holy Grail in organization theory.
2
According to Crainer there are over 400 definitions of leadership and:
it is a veritable minefield of misunderstanding and difference through which theorists and practi-
tioners must tread warily.
3
According to Useem, leadership is a matter of making a difference. It entails changing
an organisation and making active choices among plausible alternatives, and depends
on the development of others and mobilising them to get the job done.
Leadership is at its best when the vision is strategic, the voice persuasive and the results tangi-
ble. In the study of leadership, an exact definition is not essential but guiding concepts are
needed. The concepts should be general enough to apply to many situations, but specific
enough to have tangible implications for what we do.
5
However, in addition to vision and strategy, Useem suggests that they have been joined by
new critical capabilities – leading out and leading up. With the increasing use of outsour-
cing, managers need the skill to lead out: not just to send work downwards to subordinates
but also to have a talent for lateral leadership in arranging work with colleagues. And as
organisations decentralise authority managers must be able to lead their own bosses, to
have the capacity to lead up and muster support from above as well as below.
Inspiring and influencing other people
Today, leadership is increasingly associated not with command and control but with
the concept of inspiration, of getting along with other people and creating a vision
with which others can identify. For example, Adair sees leadership as a combination of
CHAPTER 8 THE NATURE OF LEADERSHIP
THE MEANING OF LEADERSHIP
Nothing in business circles brings such a rush of clichés to the head as leadership, one of
those humpty-dumpty words which, as Alice said, mean whatever we want them to mean ...
Leadership is one of those elusive priorities, an area in which there is no absolute, no guaran-
teed model. So it turns out to be not only vital but also fun to talk about what makes a leader.
Sir Peter Parker
4
The vision is absolutely key to getting your troops together. It has to be qualitative, daring
and grab the imagination. The test of it should be how quickly people will latch on to where
you are going; you can entrust them with the how. You only get a company going where you
want it to go by leadership by example and by honest and endless communication.
Everyone in the business has to buy into your vision.
Sir John Harvey-Jones
6
281
example, persuasion and compulsion that results in making people do things they
might not otherwise have done.
7
It is difficult, therefore, to generalise about leadership, but essentially it is a relation-
ship through which one person influences the behaviour or actions of other
people. This means that the process of leadership cannot be separated from the activi-
ties of groups and with effective teambuilding.
According to Levine, leaders need to focus on moving people and organisations for-
ward by increasing the competency of staff and the co-operation of teams in order to
improve the organisation. A leader’s job is to constantly challenge the bureaucracy that
smothers individual enthusiasm and the desire to contribute to an organization.
Leaders in the new millennium will create an environment that encourages the devel-
opment of skills, learning and openness so that those on their team can participate in
the deployment of financial and human resources.
8
Leadership is related to motivation, interpersonal behaviour and the process of com-
munication. For example, according to Sir Paul Judge: ‘Thirty years ago it was very
much about what you knew, the technicalities of things. Managers now are leaders of
their groups, their departments. Although they may well need some specialist knowl-
edge, the human relations part of the management job is more important than ever.
People have more flexibility and more choice in their careers, which are themselves
more fluid, so keeping people motivated is very important.’
9
Leadership is also impor-
tant in attempting to reduce employee dissatisfaction.
10
Good leadership involves the effective process of delegation and empowerment. The
leadership relationship is not limited to leader behaviour resulting in subordinate
behaviour. Leadership is a dynamic process. The leader–follower relationship is recipro-
cal and effective leadership is a two-way process which influences both individual and
organisational performance.
Lord Sieff, for example, maintains that:
Leadership is vitally important at all levels within the company, from main board to the shopfloor.
Leadership is the moral and intellectual ability to visualise and work for what is best for the com-
pany and its employees ... The most vital thing the leader does is to create team spirit around
him and near him, not in a schoolboy sense, but in realistic terms of mature adults ... To be effec-
tive leadership has to be seen, and it is best seen in action.
11
Good management leadership helps to develop teamwork and the integration of indi-
vidual and group goals. It aids intrinsic motivation by emphasising the importance of
the work that people do.
12
The changing nature of work organisations, including flat-
ter structures and recognition of the efficient use of human resources, coupled with
advances in social democracy, have combined to place growing importance on leader-
ship. The nature of management is moving away from an emphasis on getting results
by the close control of the workforce and towards an environment of coaching, sup-
port and empowerment.
13
‘The maxim that: “there is nothing you cannot achieve if
you don’t mind who gets the credit” should be the watchword for all team leaders …
The view that is beginning to emerge, is that if teams are to come up with the goods,
the leaders need to step out of the limelight and let others take a bow.’
14
Hooper and Potter discuss the importance of leadership in times of change and uncer-
tainty, and that good leaders are sensitive to the impact of the change process on
people. ‘Never is leadership more sought after than in times of change and uncertainty.
Effective change leadership is the key to shifting people’s perceptions from seeing
change as a threat to seeing it as an exciting challenge.’
15
Fullan also discusses leader-
282
PART 3 THE ROLE OF THE MANAGER
THE IMPORTANCE OF LEADERSHIP
ship in a culture of change and points out that leadership is key to large-scale improve-
ment. It is essential for leaders to understand the change process, and moral purpose
without change will lead to moral martyrdom. Leaders must be able to operate under
complex, uncertain circumstances.
16
Vecchio raises the question of whether leadership does make a difference and sug-
gests one interesting way to learn whether leaders can have an impact is by studying
the results of a change in leader. As work-unit achievements result more from the
efforts of the unit’s members than of one individual, and organisations have rules and
policies that govern behaviour, a good argument can be made that leadership has only
a modest impact on group performance. However, Vecchio also contends that: ‘one has
a sense that a leader, under the right circumstances, can have a powerful impact on
group performance.’
17
What is the relationship between leadership and management? Management is more
usually viewed as getting things done through other people in order to achieve stated
organisational objectives. The manager may react to specific situations and be more con-
cerned with solving short-term problems. Management is regarded as relating to people
working within a structured organisation and with prescribed roles. To people outside of
the organisation the manager might not necessarily be seen in a leadership role.
Management may arguably be viewed more in terms of planning, organising, direct-
ing and controlling the activities of subordinate staff. Leadership, however, is
concerned more with attention to communicating with, motivating, encouraging and
involving people.
19
Management is complex, fragmented, its activities brief, opportunistic, predominantly verbal;
leadership is more so. Management reacts. Leadership transforms. It makes a difference.
20
The emphasis of leadership is on interpersonal behaviour in a broader context. It is
often associated with the willing and enthusiastic behaviour of followers. Leadership
does not necessarily take place within the hierarchical structure of the organisa-
tion. Many people operate as leaders without their role ever being clearly established
or defined. For example, Belbin suggests that:
there is a clear implication that leadership is not part of the job but a quality that can be brought
to a job … The work that leadership encompasses in the context clearly is not assigned but comes
about spontaneously.
21
Differences in attitudes and relations with others
There are other differences between leadership and management. For example, Zaleznik
explores difference in attitudes towards goals, conceptions of work, relations with
others, self-perception and development.
■ Managers tend to adopt impersonal or passive attitudes towards goals. Leaders adopt
a more personal and active attitude towards goals.
CHAPTER 8 THE NATURE OF LEADERSHIP
283
A recent research report by the Chartered Management Institute highlights the attitudes
and opinions of managers working in the public sector on the key issues of leadership and
performance. The report indicates a strong positive relationship between the organisa-
tional priority given to leadership development, and the level of employee motivation and
satisfaction.
18
(See also the discussion on leadership development later in this chapter.)
LEADERSHIP AND MANAGEMENT
■
In order to get people to accept solutions, the manager needs continually to
co-ordinate and balance in order to compromise conflicting values. The leader cre-
ates excitement in work and develops choices that give substance to images that
excite people.
■ In their relationships with other people, managers maintain a low level of emotional
involvement. Leaders have empathy with other people and give attention to what
events and actions mean.
■ Managers see themselves more as conservators and regulators of the existing order of
affairs with which they identify, and from which they gain rewards. Leaders work in,
but do not belong to, the organisation. Their sense of identity does not depend
upon membership or work roles and they search out opportunities for change.
22
The differences between leadership and management have been applied by Watson to
the 7-S organisational framework of: strategy, structure, systems, style, staff, skills and
superordinate (or shared) goals. Watson suggests that whereas managers tend towards
reliance on
■ strategy,
■ structure, and
■ systems,
leaders have an inherent inclination for utilisation of the ‘soft’ Ss of
■ style,
■ staff,
■ skills, and
■ shared goals.
Watson also suggests, although cautiously, that 7-S management could be seen as
the province of leaders. Managers will not ordinarily be capable of achieving sufficient
mastery of all seven factors to attain a consistently high level of organisational
performance.
23
Distinction between management and leadership
Based on experience of management approaches in both commerce and the military,
Hollingsworth questions how many managers consider themselves first and foremost as
leaders, relegating ‘manager’ to their job title. He argues that commercial managers
need to learn from the armed forces if they wish to be viewed as leaders. Having
accepted that there are some links between management and leadership,
Hollingsworth lists six ‘fundamental differences’.
■ A manager administers – a leader innovates.
■ A manager maintains – a leader develops.
■ A manager focuses on systems and structure – a leader focuses on people.
■ A manager relies on control – a leader inspires trust.
■ A manager keeps an eye on the bottom line – a leader has an eye on the horizon.
■ A manager does things right – a leader does the right thing.
24
Not everyone would agree with this list. Robinson, for example, suggests that if the
word ‘manager’ is replaced by ‘administrator’ then the lists works. However, whatever
your view the list makes for a helpful basis for critical discussion on the nature of man-
agement and leadership.
25
In Chapter 6 we discussed management as getting work done through the efforts of
other people. To be an effective manager it is necessary to exercise the role of leader-
ship. A common view is that the job of the manager requires the ability of leadership
284
PART 3 THE ROLE OF THE MANAGER
The 7-S
organisational
framework