Mullins L.J. Management and organisational behaviour, Seventh edition

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and that leadership is in effect a sub-set of management, although leadership is a spe-

cial attribute which can be distinguished from other elements of management.

According to Miller et al., by definition there are important distinctions between the

two concepts of management and leadership. ‘Management involves using human,

equipment and information resources to achieve various objectives. On the other

hand, leadership focuses on getting things done through others. Thus you manage

things (budgets, procedures, and so on), but you lead people.’

Close relationship between management and leadership

Despite a continuing debate on differences between management and leadership, there

is a close relationship between them and it is not easy to separate them as distinct

activities. Many methods of management training can also be used as a means of meas-

uring leadership style. For example, the Leadership Grid (discussed in Chapter 7) was

until recently known as the Managerial Grid. Note also that the new framework of

effective leadership introduced by Investors in People is called the ‘Leadership and

Management Model’.

Today, there appears an increasing tendency to emphasise the interrelationship

between management and leadership, and to see them more as synonymous.

I have never been fond of distinguishing between leadership and management: they overlap and

you need both qualities.

Increasingly, management and leadership are being seen as inextricably linked. It is one thing

for a leader to propound a grand vision, but this is redundant unless the vision is managed so it

becomes real achievement.

Leadership and management, I think, are closely inter-related; how to get things done through

people and how to make work an enjoyable experience. Sixty-three per cent of people at work are

not engaged, do not enjoy what they are doing and yet they are using their most precious

resource – time. So, there must be a way of making that experience worthwhile and meaningful

and enjoyable.

Due to its complex and variable nature there are many alterna-

tive ways of analysing leadership. It is helpful, therefore, to

have some framework in which to consider different

approaches to study of the subject.

One way is to examine managerial leadership in terms of:

■ the qualities or traits approach;

■ the functional or group approach, including action-

centred leadership;

■ leadership as a behavioural category;

■ styles of leadership;

■ the situational approach and contingency models;

■ transitional or transformational leadership; and

■ inspirational leadership.

(See Figure 8.1.)

CHAPTER 8 THE NATURE OF LEADERSHIP

285

APPROACHES TO LEADERSHIP

Julius Caesar: a great and historic face of

leadership

Photo: Walter Sanders/Time Life Pictures/Getty Images

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PART 3 THE ROLE OF THE MANAGER

Figure 8.1 A framework for the study of managerial leadership

Assumes leaders are born and not made. Leadership consists

of certain inherited characteristics or personality traits.

Focuses attention on the person in the job and not on the job itself.

QUALITIES OR TRAITS APPROACH

Attention is focused on the functions and responsibilities of leadership,

what the leader actually does and the nature of the group.

Assumes leadership skills can be learned and developed.

THE FUNCTIONAL or GROUP APPROACH

The kinds of behaviour of people in leadership positions and the

influence on group performance. Draws attention to range of

possible managerial behaviour and importance of leadership style.

LEADERSHIP AS A BEHAVIOURAL CATEGORY

The way in which the functions of leadership are carried out and the

behaviour adopted by managers towards subordinate staff.

Concerned with the effects of leadership on those being led.

STYLES OF LEADERSHIP

The importance of the situation. Interactions between the variables

involved in the leadership situation and patterns of behaviour.

Belief that there is no single style of leadership appropriate to all situations.

THE SITUATIONAL APPROACH AND CONTINGENCY MODELS

A process of engendering motivation and commitment, creating a vision

for transforming the performance of the organisation, and appealing to the

higher ideals and values of followers.

TRANSFORMATIONAL LEADERSHIP

Based on the personal qualities or charisma of the leader and

the manner in which the leadership influence is

exercised.

INSPIRATIONAL LEADERSHIP

The first approach assumes that leaders are born and not made. Leadership consists of

certain inherited characteristics, or personality traits, which distinguish leaders from

their followers: the so-called Great Person theory of leadership. The qualities approach

focuses attention on the man or woman in the job and not on the job itself. It suggests

that attention is given to the selection of leaders rather than to training for leadership.

For example, Drucker (writing originally in 1955) makes the point that:

Leadership is of utmost importance. Indeed there is no substitute for it. But leadership cannot be

created or promoted. It cannot be taught or learned.

There have been many research studies into the common traits of leadership. However,

attempts at identifying common personality, or physical and mental, characteristics of

different ‘good’ or ‘successful’ leaders have met with little success.

Investigations

have identified lists of traits which tend to be overlapping, contradictory or with little

correlation for most features.

It is noticeable that ‘individuality’ or ‘originality’ usually features in the list of traits.

This itself suggests that there is little in common between specific personality traits of

different leaders. It is perhaps possible therefore to identify general characteristics of

leadership ability, such as self-confidence, initiative, intelligence and belief in one’s

actions, but research into this area has revealed little more than this. In a series of

interviews with headhunters, and senior figures in industry and the city, Management

Today came up with a list of Britain’s most powerful women in business. A conclusion

from the list is that the ‘top 50 women do not fit any pattern. They wield the kind of

power and influence that defies stereotypes.’

There are two further limitations with this approach.

■ First, there is bound to be some subjective judgement in determining who is

regarded as a ‘good’ or ‘successful’ leader.

■ Second, the lists of possible traits tend to be very long and there is not always agree-

ment on the most important.

Even if it were possible to identify an agreed list of more specific qualities, this would

provide little explanation of the nature of leadership. It would do little to help in the

development and training of future leaders. Although there is still some interest in

the qualities, or traits, approach, attention has been directed more to other approaches

to leadership.

The qualities or traits approach gives rise to the questions: whether leaders are

born or made; and whether leadership is an art or a science. The important point,

however, is that these are not mutually exclusive alternatives. Even if there are cer-

tain inborn qualities which make for a good leader, these natural talents need

encouragement and development. Even if leadership is something of an art, it still

requires the application of special skills and techniques.

This approach to leadership focuses attention not on the personality of the leader, nor

on the man or woman in the job, per se, but on the functions of leadership.

Leadership is always present in any group engaged in a task. The functional approach

views leadership in terms of how the leader’s behaviour affects, and is affected by,

the group of followers. This approach concentrates on the nature of the group, the fol-

lowers or subordinates. It focuses on the content of leadership.

CHAPTER 8 THE NATURE OF LEADERSHIP

THE QUALITIES OR TRAITS APPROACH

287

Limitations of

the traits

approach

THE FUNCTIONAL (OR GROUP) APPROACH

Greater attention can be given to the successful training of leaders and to the means

of improving the leaders’ performance by concentrating on the functions which will

lead to effective performance by the work group.

The functional approach believes that the skills of leadership can be learnt, devel-

oped and perfected. In contrast to the view of Drucker (referred to above), Kotter, for

example, makes the point that successful companies do not wait for leaders to come

along. ‘They actively seek out people with leadership potential and expose them to

career experiences designed to develop that potential. Indeed, with careful selection,

nurturing and encouragement, dozens of people can play important leadership roles in

a business organization.’

And a similar point is made by Whitehead: ‘There has been a

dramatic change in how management thinkers regard leadership today. Leaders are not

born, they say, but made. And the good news is everyone can do it. You don’t have to

be promoted to a management position. You can be a leader whatever job you do. You

don’t have to be the boss to be a leader.’

Action-centred leadership

A general theory on the functional approach is associated with the work of John Adair

and his ideas on action-centred leadership which focuses on what leaders actually do.

The effectiveness of the leader is dependent upon meeting three areas of need within

the work group: the need to achieve the common task, the need for team main-

tenance, and the individual needs of group members. Adair symbolises these needs

by three overlapping circles (see Figure 8.2).

Task functions involve:

■ achieving the objectives of the work group;

■ defining group tasks;

■ planning the work;

■ allocation of resources;

■ organisation of duties and responsibilities;

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PART 3 THE ROLE OF THE MANAGER

Team

maintenance

needs

Task needs

Individual needs

Figure 8.2 Interaction of needs within the group

(Source: Adair, J., Action-Centred Leadership, Gower Press (1979), p. 10.)

■ controlling quality and checking performance;

■ reviewing progress.

Team functions involve:

■ maintaining morale and building team spirit;

■ the cohesiveness of the group as a working unit;

■ setting standards and maintaining discipline;

■ systems of communication within the group;

■ training the group;

■ appointment of sub-leaders.

Individual functions involve:

■ meeting the needs of the individual members of the group;

■ attending to personal problems;

■ giving praise and status;

■ reconciling conflicts between group needs and needs of the individual;

■ training the individual.

The action by the leader in any one area of need will affect one or both of the other

areas of need. The ideal position is where complete integration of the three areas of

need is achieved. In any work group the most effective leader is the person who sees

that the task needs, the needs of the group and those of the individual are all ade-

quately met. The effective leader elicits the contribution of members of the group and

draws out other leadership from the group to satisfy the three interrelated areas of

need. The three-circle approach used by Adair also serves to illustrate the close relation-

ship between leadership and management. Building the team and satisfying individual

needs would include leadership. Achieving the common task clearly involves the

process of management.

This approach draws attention to the kinds of behaviour of people in leadership situ-

ations. One of the most extensive research studies on behavioural categories of

leadership was the Ohio State Leadership Studies undertaken by the Bureau of Business

Research at Ohio State University. The focus was on the effects of leadership styles on

group performance. Questionnaires were designed which comprised a list of descriptive

items each dealing with a specific aspect of leadership behaviour. The questionnaires

were used repeatedly in different kinds of organisations and in a variety of

leader–group member situations.

Results of the Ohio State studies indicated two major dimensions of leadership behav-

iour, labelled ‘consideration’ and ‘initiating structure’.

■ Consideration reflects the extent to which the leader establishes trust, mutual

respect and rapport with the group and shows concern, warmth, support and con-

sideration for subordinates. This dimension is associated with two-way

communication, participation and the human relations approach to leadership.

■ Structure reflects the extent to which the leader defines and structures group inter-

actions towards attainment of formal goals and organises group activities. This

dimension is associated with efforts to achieve organisational goals.

Consideration and initiating structure can be seen as the same as maintenance func-

tion (building and maintaining the group as a working unit and relationships among

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289

LEADERSHIP AS A BEHAVIOURAL CATEGORY

Consideration

and structure

group members) and task function (accomplishment of specific tasks of the groups and

achievement of goals) which are discussed in Chapter 14. Consideration and initiating

structure were found to be uncorrelated and independent dimensions. Leadership

behaviour could, therefore, be shown on two separate axes. Research into the effects of

these four types of leadership behaviour suggest that some balance is needed between

consideration and structure in order to satisfy both individual needs and organisa-

tional goals. A high consideration, high structure style appears to be generally more

effective in terms of subordinate satisfaction and group performance, but the evidence

is not conclusive and much seems to depend upon situational factors.

Another major research study was carried out at the University of Michigan Institute for

Social Research at the same time as the Ohio State studies. Effective supervisors (meas-

ured along dimensions of group morale, productivity and cost reduction) appeared to

display four common characteristics:

■ delegation of authority and avoidance of close supervision;

■ an interest and concern in their subordinates as individuals;

■ participative problem-solving; and

■ high standards of performance.

Likert, who has summarised the findings of the University of Michigan studies, used

the terms employee-centred and production-centred supervisors.

These terms are

similar to the dimensions of consideration and structure. The first three of these super-

visory characteristics are examples of consideration. The fourth characteristic

exemplifies structure. Like consideration and structure, employee-centred and produc-

tion-centred supervision need to be balanced. Likert concluded that employee-centred

supervisors who get best results tend to recognise that one of their main responsibili-

ties is production. Both the Ohio State studies and the University of Michigan studies

appear to support the idea that there is no single behavioural category of leadership

which is superior. There are many types of leadership behaviour and their effectiveness

depends upon the variables in any given situation.

Despite the many types of actual leadership behaviour, we have seen that there appears

to be general agreement on two major dimensions of managerial leadership. This can

be extended to include the works of McGregor and of Blake and McCanse, discussed as

part of managerial behaviour in Chapter 7. (See Figure 8.3.)

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PART 3 THE ROLE OF THE MANAGER

Group interaction

analysis

Task

functions

Maintenance

functions

Ohio State

leadership study

Initiating

structure

Consideration

University of

Michigan study

Production-centred

supervision

Employee-centred

supervision

McGregor, assumptions

about people and work

Theory X Theory Y

Blake and McCanse,

Leadership Grid

Concern for

production

Concern for

people

Figure 8.3 Two major dimensions of managerial leadership

Employee-

centred and

production-

centred

supervisors

Major

dimensions of

managerial

leadership

Attention to leadership as a behavioural category has drawn attention to the import-

ance of leadership style. In the work situation it has become increasingly clear that

managers can no longer rely solely on the use of their position in the hierarchical

structure as a means of exercising the functions of leadership. In order to get the best

results from subordinates the manager must also have regard for the need to encourage

high morale, a spirit of involvement and co-operation, and a willingness to work. This

gives rise to consideration of the style of leadership and provides another heading

under which to analyse leadership behaviour.

Leadership style is the way in which the functions of leadership are carried out,

the way in which the manager typically behaves towards members of the group.

The development of behavioural science has drawn attention to the processes of

interpersonal behaviour in the work situation and to the effects of leadership on those

being led. The attention given to leadership style is based on the assumption that sub-

ordinates are more likely to work effectively for managers who adopt a certain style of

leadership than they will for managers who adopt alternative styles.

Broad classification of leadership style

There are many dimensions to leadership and many possible ways of describing leader-

ship style, such as, for example, dictatorial, unitary, bureaucratic, benevolent,

charismatic, consultative, participative and abdicatorial. The style of managerial leader-

ship towards subordinate staff and the focus of power can however be classified within

a broad three-fold heading.

■ The authoritarian (or autocratic) style is where the focus of power is with the manager,

and all interactions within the group move towards the manager. The manager alone

exercises decision-making and authority for determining policy, procedures for achiev-

ing goals, work tasks and relationships, control of rewards or punishments.

■ The democratic style is where the focus of power is more with the group as a whole

and there is greater interaction within the group. The leadership functions are

shared with members of the group and the manager is more part of a team. The

group members have a greater say in decision-making, determination of policy,

implementation of systems and procedures.

■ A laissez-faire (genuine) style is where the manager observes that members of the

group are working well on their own. The manager consciously makes a decision to

pass the focus of power to members, to allow them freedom of action ‘to do as they

think best’, and not to interfere; but is readily available if help is needed. There is

often confusion over this style of leadership behaviour. The word ‘genuine’ is

emphasised because this is to be contrasted with the manager who could not care,

who deliberately keeps away from the trouble spots and does not want to get

involved. The manager just lets members of the group get on with the work in hand.

Members are left to face decisions which rightly belong with the manager. This is

more a non-style of leadership or it could perhaps be labelled as abdication.

Belbin distinguishes between two broad contrasting or diverging styles of leadership in

industry: the solo leader and the team leader.

The solo leader enjoys free range, and

rules as if absolutely. The leader takes no risks with other people, adopts a directive

approach, prefers specific tasks and goals, expects compliance and acts as a model for

others to follow. In times of crisis or urgency the talented solo leaders have been effec-

tive in overcoming departmental barriers and obstacles, and implementing decisions

quickly. However, when the solo leaders fail, they are discarded.

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STYLES OF LEADERSHIP

291

Solo leader

and team

leader

By contrast, the team leader declines to rule as if absolutely, and deliberately limits

his or her role. The leader creates a sense of mission, expresses greater respect for and

trust in subordinates, recognises the skills and strengths of others, and is more inclined

to delegate. Belbin suggests that solo leadership is familiar to most people because part

of crowd psychology is to seek to be led and to have faith in the leader. However,

increasing uncertainty and continuous change together with societal pressure for the

sharing of power has led to increasing attention to team leadership.

Work by such writers as McGregor, Likert, and Blake and Mouton (discussed in Chapter 7)

appears to support the value of participative managerial leadership in improving

organisational effectiveness. Attention to the manager’s style of leadership has come

about because of a greater understanding of the needs and expectations of people at

work. It has also been influenced by such factors as:

■ increasing business competitiveness and recognition of efficient use of human

resources;

■ changes in the value system of society;

■ broader standards of education and training;

■ advances in scientific and technical knowledge;

■ changes in the nature of work organisation;

■ the influence of trade unions;

■ pressure for a greater social responsibility towards employees, for example through

schemes of participation in decision-making and the quality of working life; and

■ government legislation, for example in the areas of employment protection, and the

influence of the European Union.

All of these factors have combined to create resistance against purely autocratic styles

of leadership.

One of the best known works on leadership style is that by Tannenbaum and Schmidt

(Figure 8.4).

Originally written in 1958 and updated in 1973, their work suggests a con-

tinuum of possible leadership behaviour available to a manager and along which various

styles of leadership may be placed. The continuum presents a range of action related to

the degree of authority used by the manager and to the area of freedom available to non-

managers in arriving at decisions. The Tannenbaum and Schmidt continuum can be

related to McGregor’s supposition of Theory X and Theory Y. Boss-centred leadership is

towards Theory X and subordinate-centred leadership is towards Theory Y.

Moving along the continuum, the manager may be characterised according to the degree

of control that is maintained. Neither extreme of the continuum is absolute as there is

always some limitation on authority and on freedom. This approach can be seen as iden-

tifying four main styles of leadership by the manager: tells, sells, consults, joins.

■

Tells. The manager identifies a problem, chooses a decision and announces this to sub-

ordinates, expecting them to implement it without an opportunity for participation.

■ Sells. The manager still chooses a decision but recognises the possibility of some

resistance from those faced with the decision and attempts to persuade subordinates

to accept it.

■ Consults. The manager identifies the problem but does not choose a decision until

the problem is presented to the group, and the manager has listened to the advice

and solutions suggested by subordinates.

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PART 3 THE ROLE OF THE MANAGER

Attention to

style of

leadership

CONTINUUM OF LEADERSHIP BEHAVIOUR

Four main

styles of

leadership

■ Joins. The manager defines the problem and the limits within which the decision

must be chosen and then passes to the group, with the manager as a member, the

right to make decisions.

Tannenbaum and Schmidt suggest that there are three factors, or forces, of particular

importance in deciding what types of leadership are practicable and desirable. These

are: forces in the manager; forces in the subordinates; and forces in the situation.

1 Forces in the manager. The manager’s behaviour will be influenced by their

own personalities, backgrounds, knowledge and experiences. These internal forces

will include:

■ value systems;

■ confidence in subordinates;

■ leadership inclinations; and

■ feelings of security in an uncertain situation.

2 Forces in the subordinate. Subordinates are influenced by many personality vari-

ables and their individual set of expectations about their relationship with the

manager. Characteristics of the subordinate are:

■ the strength of the needs for independence;

■ the readiness to assume responsibility for decision-making;

■ the degree of tolerance for ambiguity;

■ interest in the problem and feelings as to its importance;

CHAPTER 8 THE NATURE OF LEADERSHIP

293

Figure 8.4 Continuum of manager–non-manager behaviour

(Reprinted by permission of the Harvard Business Review from ‘How to Choose a Leadership Pattern’ by Robert Tannenbaum and Warren H. Schmidt (May/June 1973).

Main forces in

deciding type

of leadership

■ understanding and identification with the goals of the organisation;

■ necessary knowledge and experience to deal with the problem; and

■ the extent of learning to expect to share in decision-making.

The greater the positive response to these characteristics, the greater freedom of

action can be allowed by the manager.

3 Forces in the situation. The manager’s behaviour will be influenced by the general

situation and environmental pressures. Characteristics in the situation include:

■ type of organisation;

■ group effectiveness;

■ nature of the problem; and

■ pressure of time.

Tannenbaum and Schmidt conclude that successful leaders are keenly aware of those

forces which are most relevant to their behaviour at a particular time. They are able to

behave appropriately in terms of their understanding of themselves, the individuals

and the group, the organisation, and environmental influences. Successful managers

are both perceptive and flexible. Forces lying outside the organisation are also

included. Recognition is given to the possibility of the manager and/or subordinates

taking initiatives to change the boundaries of the rectangle through interaction with

external forces. Recognition is also given to the power available to all parties in the

organisation (for example individual workers and trade unions) and to the factors

which underlie decisions on the use of power by the manager. Tannenbaum and

Schmidt suggest a new continuum of patterns of leadership behaviour in which the

total area of freedom shared between managers and non-managers is redefined con-

stantly by interactions between them and the forces in the environment.

The situational approach concentrates on the importance of the situation in the study of

leadership. A variety of people with differing personalities and from different back-

grounds have emerged as effective leaders in different situations. The person who

becomes the leader of the work group is thought to be the person who knows best

what to do and is seen by the group as the most suitable leader in the particular situa-

tion. The continuum of leadership behaviour draws attention to forces in the situation

as one of the main forces influencing the nature of managerial behaviour. The situa-

tional approach emphasises the situation as the dominant feature in considering the

characteristics of effective leadership.

It is interesting to note that the importance of the situation for managerial leadership

was put forward over 50 years ago. Mary Parker Follett considered the way orders should

be given in the manager–subordinate relationship. The problem is avoiding the two

extremes of: (i) too great bossism in giving orders; and (ii) practically no orders given.

Follett’s solution was what she called the ‘depersonalising of orders and obeying the

law of the situation’.

My solution is to depersonalise the giving of orders, to unite all concerned in a study of the situa-

tion, to discover the law of the situation and obey that. Until we do this I do not think we shall

have the most successful business administration … This is, ideally what should take place

between any head and subordinates. One

person should not give orders to another person but

both should agree to take their orders from the situation. If orders are simply part of the situa-

tion, the question of someone giving and someone receiving does not come up. Both accept the

orders given by the situation.

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THE SITUATIONAL APPROACH