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CHAPTER 6 THE NATURE OF MANAGEMENT
235
Crainer, S. and Dearlove, D. (eds) Financial Times
Handbook of Management Second edition, Financial
Times Prentice Hall (2001), pp. 110–31.
37. Mintzberg, H. The Nature of Managerial Work, Harper
and Row (1973).
38. Mintzberg, H. ‘The Manager’s Job: Folklore and Fact’,
Harvard Business Review Classic, March–April 1990,
pp. 163–76.
39. Wolf, F. M. ‘The Nature of Managerial Work: An
Investigation of the Work of the Audit Manager’,
Accounting Review, vol. LVI, no. 4, October 1981,
pp. 861–81.
40.
Shortt, G. ‘Work Activities of Hotel Managers in Northern
Ireland: A Mintzbergian Analysis’, International Journal of
Hospitality Management, vol. 8. no. 2, 1989, pp. 121–30.
41. McCall, M. W. and Segrist, C. A. In Pursuit of the
Manager’s Job: Building on Mintzberg, Center for Creative
Learning, Greenboro, NC (1980).
42. Kotter, J. P. The General Managers, The Free Press (1982).
43. Kotter, J. P. ‘What Effective General Managers Really
Do’, Harvard Business Review, vol. 60, no. 6,
November–December 1982, pp. 156–67.
44. Luthans, F. ‘Successful vs. Effective Real Managers’, The
Academy of Management Executive, vol. 11, no. 2, May
1988, pp. 127–32.
45.
Stewart, R. Contrasts in Management, McGraw-Hill (1976).
46. Stewart, R. Choices for the Manager, McGraw-Hill (1982).
47. See also: Stewart, R. Managing Today and Tomorrow,
Macmillan (1991).
48. Stewart, R. ‘Managerial Behaviour: How Research has
Changed the Traditional Picture’, in Earl, M. J. (ed.)
Perspectives on Management: A Multidisciplinary Analysis,
Oxford University Press (1983), pp. 96–7.
49. Katz, R. L. ‘Skills of an Effective Administrator’, Harvard
Business Review, September–October 1974, pp. 90–102.
50. See, for example: Lane, T., Snow, D. and Labrow, P.
‘Learning to succeed with ICT’, The British Journal of
Administrative Management, May/June 2000, pp. 14–15.
51. Green, J. ‘When Was Your Management Style Last
Applauded?’, Chartered Secretary, December 1998,
pp. 28–9.
52. Douglas, M. ‘Why “Soft Skills” Are an Essential Part of
the Hard World of Business’, Manager, The British
Journal of Administrative Management, No. 34, Christmas
2002/New Year 2003, p. 34.
53. Misselhorn, H. The Head and Heart of Management,
Management and Organization Development
Consultants, South Africa (2003), pp. 12–13.
54. Drucker, P. F. The Practice of Management, Heinemann
Professional (1989), p. 377.
55. Drucker, P. F. Management Challenges for the 21st
Century, Butterworth Heinemann (1999), p. 40.
56. Billsberry, J. (ed.) The Effective Manager: Perspectives and
Illustrations, Sage Publications (1996).
57. Belbin, R. M. Changing the Way we Work, Butterworth-
Heinemann (1997), p. 95.
58. Heller, R. In Search of European Excellence, HarperCollins
Business (1997), p. xvi.
59. Prahalad, C. K. ‘Emerging Work of Managers’ in
Chowdhury, S. Management 21C, Financial Times
Prentice Hall (2000) pp. 141–50.
60. Poole, M. and Mansfield, R. Two Decades of Management,
Chartered Management Institute, June 2001.
61. Cloke, K. and Goldsmith, J. The End of Management;
and the Rise of Organizational Democracy, Jossey-Bass
(2002).
62. Ward, T. R. Management Services – The Way Ahead,
National O & M Conference, 1964; published as an
Anbar Monograph, Anbar Publications (1965).
FT
Use the Financial Times to enhance your understanding of the context and practice of management and
organisational behaviour. Refer to articles 2, 6, 8, 9 and 16 in the BUSINESS PRESS section at the end of
the book for relevant reports on the issues explored in this chapter.
A good manager’s success depends on the
ability to develop and motivate others.
Mary Kay Ash
Mary Kay On People Management, Macdonald & Co. (1984)
Good management is not just a bright tool-kit of
techniques and specifications, although the
professional skills are essential. It involves the
art of entrepreneurship and leadership, it means
managing change, including change itself.
(Sir) Peter Parker
Sunday Times (6 October 1985)
Managerial skills cannot be painted on the out-
side of executives – it has to go deeper than that.
Mary Parker Follet
Freedom & Co-ordination (1949)
MANAGERIAL BEHAVIOUR
AND EFFECTIVENESS
It is the responsibility of managers to manage,
and to achieve results through the utilisation of
human resources and the efforts of other
people. The way in which managers exercise
their responsibilities and duties is important.
Consideration must be given to the effective
management of people. Managers are only likely
to be successful if they adopt certain basic
managerial philosophies and an appropriate
style of behaviour. Attention must be given to
managerial performance and effectiveness.
LEARNING OUTCOMES
After completing this chapter you should be able to:
contrast different attitudes and assumptions of
managers about human nature and behaviour at work;
examine managerial styles in terms of concern for
production and concern for people;
assess different systems of management and relate
these systems to organisational characteristics;
appreciate the importance of adopting an appropriate
style of managerial behaviour and approach to the
management of people;
review basic, underlying philosophies for the
successful management of people;
analyse managerial effectiveness and suggest criteria
for evaluating the effectiveness of managers;
recognise the importance of the management of time
and distinguish activitiy from effectiveness.
7
Photo: Press Association
An essential ingredient of any successful manager is the ability to handle people effec-
tively. People respond according to the manner in which they are treated. The
behaviour of managers and their style of management will influence the effort
expended and level of performance achieved by subordinate staff.
To repeat the point made in Chapter 2 – in the belief of the author, the majority of
people come to work with the original attitude of being eager to do a good job, and
desirous of performing well and to the best of their abilities. Where actual performance
fails to match the ideal this is largely a result of how staff perceive they are treated by
management. There is, therefore, a heavy responsibility on managers and on the styles
and systems of management adopted.
The changing nature of the work environment is reflected in changes in the traditional
boss–subordinate relationship. No longer can managers rely solely on their perceived
formal authority as a result of a hierarchical position in the structure of the organisa-
tion. As Stewart, for example, points out, managing is more a matter of enlisting the
co-operation of other people, including those who because of increasing subcontract-
ing may not even be employees of the organisation. ‘Authority is, and is likely to
continue to be, less acceptable than in the past. This reflects a major change in society:
what has been termed the end of the grateful society. Better educated and more inde-
pendent people expect to be consulted rather than to be told what to do.’
2
As Greenhalgh points out, it is clear that managers today face a new era for business
and need to face up to the new opportunities and constraints. Successful management
involves adapting to the new order.
Gone is the notion of the corporate leader as the person who supplied the vision, decided on the
appropriate strategy and tactics to achieve that vision, then assigned tasks of implementation to
a hierarchy of subordinates. Also gone is the notion of worker-as-robot, someone who didn’t
think but merely performed as instructed. Such notions have been replaced by decentralisation
rather than top-down decision making, empowered rather than mindless subordinates, team-
work rather than individualistic performance, and customers or clients – rather than top
management – as the drivers of decisions … The new generation of knowledge workers don’t
think of themselves as ‘subordinates’: they consider themselves independent professionals who
can be given a general goal and be left to accomplish it without ‘micromanagement’. They look to
managers to facilitate their achievement rather than to direct and control their work.
3
CHAPTER 7 MANAGERIAL BEHAVIOUR AND EFFECTIVENESS
237
MANAGERIAL STYLE AND BEHAVIOUR
Management has become more about managing people than managing operations; unless
we have harnessed the full potential of our people even the best plans are likely to be less
than successful. Furthermore, it has also become evident that releasing the potential of our
people involves more than simply providing them with the best training and a clear com-
pany strategy. We have to gain their support and commitment by providing an environment
in which they will thrive as individuals.
Glyn Macken, Deputy Director General, The Institute of Management
1
It is clear, then, that with the general movement towards flatter organisation structures,
flexible working and greater employee empowerment, there is greater emphasis on an inte-
grating rather than a traditional controlling style of management. Management style and
behaviour can be as important as management competence.
The way in which managers approach the performance of their jobs and the behaviour
they display towards subordinate staff is likely to be conditioned by predispositions
about people, and human nature and work.
Drawing on Maslow’s hierarchy of needs model (which is discussed in Chapter 12),
McGregor put forward two suppositions about human nature and behaviour at work. He
argues that the style of management adopted is a function of the manager’s attitudes
towards people and assumptions about human nature and behaviour. The two supposi-
tions are called Theory X and Theory Y, and are based on polar assumptions about
people and work.
4
Theory X represents the carrot-and-stick assumptions on which traditional organisations
are based, and was widely accepted and practised before the development of the
human relations approach. Its assumptions are that:
■ the average person is lazy and has an inherent dislike of work;
■ most people must be coerced, controlled, directed and threatened with punishment
if the organisation is to achieve its objectives;
■ the average person avoids responsibility, prefers to be directed, lacks ambition and
values security most of all; and
■ motivation occurs only at the physiological and security levels.
The central principle of Theory X is direction and control through a centralised
system of organisation and the exercise of authority. McGregor questions whether
the Theory X approach to human nature is correct, and the relevance today of man-
agement practices which are based upon it. Assumptions based on a Theory X
approach, and the traditional use of rewards and sanctions exercised by the nature of
the manager’s position and authority, are likely to result in an exploitative or authori-
tarian style of management.
At the other extreme to Theory X is Theory Y which represents the assumptions consis-
tent with current research knowledge. The central principle of Theory Y is the
integration of individual and organisational goals. Its assumptions are:
■ for most people work is as natural as play or rest;
■ people will exercise self-direction and self-control in the service of objectives to
which they are committed;
■ commitment to objectives is a function of rewards associated with their achievement;
■ given the right conditions, the average worker can learn to accept and to seek
responsibility;
■ the capacity for creativity in solving organisational problems is distributed widely in
the population;
■ the intellectual potential of the average person is only partially utilised; and
■ motivation occurs at the affiliation, esteem and self-actualisation levels as well as the
physiological and security levels.
McGregor implies that a Theory Y approach is the best way to elicit co-operation from
members of an organisation. It is the task of management to create the conditions in
which individuals may satisfy their motivational needs, and in which they achieve
their own goals through meeting the goals of the organisation. McGregor develops an
analysis of the implications of accepting Theory Y in regard to performance appraisal,
administration of salaries and promotions, participation, staff–line relationships, lead-
ership, management development and the managerial team.
238
PART 3 THE ROLE OF THE MANAGER
MANAGERS’ ATTITUDES TOWARDS PEOPLE
Theory X
assumptions
about human
nature
Theory Y
assumptions
about human
nature
Managerial strategies
Although Theory X and Theory Y are based on polar extremes and are an over-
simplification, they do represent identifiable philosophies which influence managerial
behaviour and strategies. For example, as Lord Sieff comments:
Now and again it is necessary to criticize people, but rather than tick them off, provided you can
leave them in no doubt as to what the issue is, I am sure it pays to avoid being censorious but try
instead to appeal to the innate capacity for self-criticism. Whatever you do, avoid making a
mountain out of a molehill.
5
Most people have the potential to be self-motivating. They can best achieve their per-
sonal goals through self-direction of their efforts towards meeting the goals of the
organisation. Broadening educational standards and changing social values mean that
people today have wider expectations of the quality of working life, including opportu-
nities for consultation and participation in decisions which affect them. Managers
should develop practices based more on an accurate understanding of human behav-
iour and motivation.
The Theory Y approach, however, is not a ‘soft’ option. In practice it is often diffi-
cult to achieve successfully. It can be frustrating and time-consuming, and mistakes
will occur.
The two views of Theory X and Theory Y tend to represent extremes of the natural
inclination of managers towards a particular style of behaviour. In practice, however,
the actual style of management behaviour adopted will be influenced by the demands
of the situation.
7
Where the job offers a high degree of intrinsic satisfaction or involves
a variety of tasks, an element of problem-solving and the exercise of initiative, or
where output is difficult to measure in quantitative terms, an informal, participative
approach would seem to be more effective. It is more likely to lead to a higher level of
staff morale. In many cases this would apply to work of a scientific, technical or profes-
sional nature. Where commitment to the goals of the organisation is almost a
prerequisite of membership, such as in certain voluntary or charity organisations, for
example, then a Theory Y approach would clearly seem to be most appropriate.
However, even if a manager has a basic belief in Theory Y assumptions there may be
occasions when it is necessary, or more appropriate, to adopt a Theory X approach.
When the nature of the job itself offers little intrinsic reward or limited opportunities
to satisfy higher-level needs, a more dictatorial style of management might work best.
Some jobs are designed narrowly, with highly predictable tasks, and output measured
precisely. This is the case, for example, with many complex production processes in
manufacturing firms. With these types of jobs a Theory X approach may be needed if
an adequate level of performance is to be maintained.
CHAPTER 7 MANAGERIAL BEHAVIOUR AND EFFECTIVENESS
239
Since 1952 I’ve been stumbling around buildings and running primitive Theory Y depart-
ments, divisions, and finally one whole Theory Y company: Avis.
In 1962, after thirteen years, Avis had never made a profit (except one year when
they jiggled their depreciation rates). Three years later the company had grown internation-
ally (not by acquisitions) from $30 million in sales to $75 million in sales, and had made
successive annual profits of $1 million, $3 million, and $5 million. If I had anything to do
with this, I ascribe it all to my application of Theory Y. And a faltering, stumbling, groping,
mistake-ridden application it was.
Robert Townsend
6
Demands of
the situation
Use of a Theory
Xapproach
A Theory X approach is also indicated in emergency situations, or where shortage of
time or other overriding factors demand the use of authority in directing actions to the
tasks in hand. For example, in the hustle, heat and noise of a busy hotel kitchen
preparing fresh meals for a large banquet, with many tasks to be co-ordinated over very
short time scales, it seems to be recognised that a Theory X style of management is
most appropriate. In such circumstances this style of management appears to be
accepted by the kitchen staff.
If subordinates match the Theory Y assumptions of the manager, then this style of
management may well be effective. However, there are many staff who, whatever the
nature of their job, do not wish to accept responsibility at work. They seem to prefer,
and respond better to, a more directed and controlled style of management. There are
times, therefore, when the manager may be justified in adopting Theory X assump-
tions about staff.
Developing the work of McGregor, a comparison of management style and practice in
different cultural settings is provided by Ouchi. In contrast to the traditional, more
bureaucratic American organisational environment, Ouchi recommends a Japanese
style ‘Theory Z’ environment.
The problem of productivity in the United States will not be solved with monetary policy nor
through more investment in research and development. It will only be remedied when we learn
how to manage people in such a way that they can work together more effectively. Theory Z offers
several such ways.
8
The characteristics of a Theory Z organisation are described by Ouchi as:
■ long-term employment, often for a lifetime;
■ relatively slow process of evaluation and promotion;
■ development of company-specific skills, and moderately specialised career path;
■ implicit, informal control mechanisms supported by explicit, formal measures;
■ participative decision-making by consensus;
■ collective decision-making but individual ultimate responsibility;
■ broad concern for the welfare of subordinates and co-workers as a natural part of a
working relationship, and informal relationships among people.
In Britain, the operations of the successful Marks & Spencer organisation have been
likened to a manner that approaches the typical Japanese company, and with close
similarities to the characteristics of a Theory Z organisation.
9
According to Ouchi, type Z organisations would be more effective as a result of an
emphasis on trust, which goes hand in hand with productivity; a less hierarchical and
bureaucratic structure; and higher levels of worker involvement; all of which would
create a distinctive company style and culture. His ideas generated considerable debate
about the nature of Japanese industry and Japanese managers which still, to some
extent, continues today.
10
Note also that while many British and US organisations once attempted to emulate
Japanese methods and styles of management, with mixed results, there is now evi-
dence of a reversal of this trend with Japanese corporations moving away from a
Theory Z environment and restructuring along the lines of Western organisations.
11
240
PART 3 THE ROLE OF THE MANAGER
JAPANESE ‘THEORY Z’ ENVIRONMENT
Japanese
industry and
management
One means of describing and evaluating different styles of management is the Blake and
Mouton Managerial Grid® (see Figure 7.1). First published as the Managerial Grid in 1964,
restated in 1978 and 1985
13
and republished in 1991 as the Leadership Grid,
14
the Grid pro-
vides a basis for comparison of managerial styles in terms of two principal dimensions:
■ concern for production; and
■ concern for people.
Concern for production is the amount of emphasis which the manager places on
accomplishing the tasks in hand, achieving a high level of production and getting
results or profits. This is represented along the horizontal axis of the Grid.
Concern for people is the amount of emphasis which the manager gives to subordi-
nates and colleagues as individuals and to their needs and expectations. This is
represented along the vertical axis of the Grid.
Five basic combinations
‘Concern for’ is not how much concern, but indicates the character and strength of
assumptions which underlie the manager’s own basic attitudes and style of manage-
ment. The significant point is ‘how’ the manager expresses concern about production
or about people. The four corners and the centre of the Grid provide five basic combi-
nations of degree of concern for production coupled with degree of concern for people
(see Figure 7.1(a)).
■ the impoverished manager (1,1 rating), low concern for production and low con-
cern for people;
■ the authority–compliance manager (9,1 rating), high concern for production and
low concern for people;
■ the country club manager (1,9 rating), low concern for production and high con-
cern for people;
■ the middle-of-the-road manager (5,5 rating), moderate concern for production and
moderate concern for people; and
■ the team manager (9,9 rating), high concern for production and high concern
for people.
Managers with a 1,1 rating tend to be remote from their subordinates and believe in
the minimum movement from their present position. They do as little as they can with
production or with people. Too much attention to production will cause difficulties with
staff and too much attention to the needs of staff will cause problems with production.
CHAPTER 7 MANAGERIAL BEHAVIOUR AND EFFECTIVENESS
241
The cynic might describe efforts to turn Theory Y into practice as doing with difficulty what
comes naturally to the Japanese. There, excellent managers apply principles of behaviour
which translate perfectly into western language – and which have long been echoed in the
progressive areas of the west. Yet you still encounter the old ostrich attitudes that caused
western companies so much damage in the past: for instance, the argument that to emulate
Japan is impossible because of its peculiar culture. But the famous national enthusiasm for
good business and effective management isn’t simply a product of Japan’s culture. After all,
sloppy western habits, like investing too little in productive capacity, new products, train-
ing, quality and marketing are hardly cultural – not unless bad business economics are
built into the western mentality.
Robert Heller
12
THE MANAGERIAL/LEADERSHIP GRID
®
242
PART 3 THE ROLE OF THE MANAGER
123456789
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
High
Low
Low High
Concern for results
Concern for people
1,9 9,9
9,11,1
Country club management
Thoughtful attention to the
needs of people for satisfying
relationships leads to a
comfortable, friendly organisation
atmosphere and
work tempo.
Team management
Work accomplishment is
from committed people;
interdependence through a
‘common stake’ in organisation
purpose leads to relationships
of trust and respect.
Impoverished management
Exertion of minimum effort
to get required work done
is appropriate to sustain
organisation membership.
Authority–compliance
management
Efficiency in operations results
from arranging conditions of
work in such a way that
human elements interfere
to a minimum degree.
9+9
9+9: Paternalism/maternalism
Reward and approval are bestowed
to people in return for loyalty and
obedience; failure to comply leads
to punishment
In Opportunistic management, people adapt
and shift to any Grid style needed to gain the maximum
advantage. Performance occurs according to a
system of selfish gain. Effort is given only for an
advantage or personal gain.
Opportunism
5,5
1,1
1,9 9,9
9,1
1
,9
9,
1
5,5
Middle-of-the-road management
Adequate organisation performance is
possible through balancing the necessity
to get work out while maintaining morale
of people at a satisfactory level.
(a)
(b) (c)
9+9
1
,9
9,
1
Figure 7.1 The Leadership Grid®
(Source: Blake, R. R. and McCanse, A. A. (1991) Leadership Dilemmas – Grid Solutions, Gulf Publishing Co., Houston (1991),
Grid Figure, p. 29, Paternalism Figure, p. 30, Opportunism Figure, p. 31. Reproduced by permission of Grid International, Inc.)
CHAPTER 7 MANAGERIAL BEHAVIOUR AND EFFECTIVENESS
243
Managers with a 9,1 rating are autocratic. They tend to rely on a centralised system
and the use of authority. Staff are regarded as a means of production and motivation is
based on competition between people in order to get work done. If staff challenge an
instruction or standard procedure they are likely to be viewed as unco-operative.
The 1,9 rating managers believe that a contented staff will undertake what is
required of them and achieve a reasonable level of output. Production is secondary
to the avoidance of conflict and maintenance of harmony among the staff. Managers
will seek to find compromises between staff and solutions acceptable to everyone.
Although innovation may be encouraged, they tend to reject good ideas if likely to
cause difficulties among the staff.
The 5,5 rating is the middle-of-the-road management with the approach of ‘live
and let live’ and a tendency to avoid the real issues. This style of management is the
‘dampened pendulum’ with managers swinging between concern for production and
concern for people. Under pressure, this style of management tends to become task
management (9,1). Where this strains relations and causes resentment from staff, how-
ever, pressure is eased and managers adopt a compromise approach. If there is a swing
too much the other way (towards 1,9) managers are likely to take a tighter and more
hardened approach.
Managers with a 9,9 rating believe in the integrating of the task needs and con-
cern for people. They believe in creating a situation whereby people can satisfy their
own needs by commitment to the objectives of the organisation. Managers will discuss
problems with the staff, seek their ideas and give them freedom of action. Difficulties
in working relationships will be handled by confronting staff directly and attempting
to work out solutions with them.
These five styles of management represent the extremes of the Grid. With a nine-point
scale on each axis there is a total of 81 different ‘mixtures’ of concern for production
and concern for people. Most people would come up with a score somewhere in an
intermediary position on the Grid.
1991 edition of the Grid also covers two additional styles: opportunism and 9+9 pater-
nalism/maternalism, which take account of the reaction of subordinates.
■ In opportunistic management, organisational performance occurs according to a
system of exchanges, whereby effort is given only for an equivalent measure of the
same. People adapt to the situation to gain maximum advantage of it. (See Figure
7.1(b).)
■ In 9+9 paternalistic/maternalistic management, reward and approval are granted
to people in return for loyalty and obedience; and punishment is threatened for fail-
ure to comply (see Figure 7.1(c)).
A summary of the seven basic combinations of the Grid is given in Table 7.1.
The Managerial Grid provides a framework in which managers can identify, study and
review their patterns of behaviour. Instead of viewing management styles as a
dichotomy of ‘either/or’, Blake and Mouton claim that the Managerial Grid illustrates
that the manager can gain the benefits of maximising, simultaneously, methods which
are both production-oriented and people-oriented. The 9,9 position, although an ideal,
is worth working for.
Based on their experience of using the original Grid, Blake and Mouton give three
reasons why it is important to consider which style of management is used to achieve
production through people.
Two additional
grid styles
FRAMEWORK FOR PATTERNS OF BEHAVIOUR
■ The 9,9 style of management correlates positively with bottom line productivity.
■ 9,9 oriented managers enjoy maximum career success.
■ There is now greater knowledge about the correlation between extreme grid styles of
management, and mental and physical health.
From their research, Blake and Mouton emphasise that managers may switch from one
style to another or combine elements of different styles. However, they also found that
managers tend to have one dominant style of management which they use more often
than any other. They found also that many managers have a ‘back-up’ style which they
adopt if their dominant style does not work in a particular situation.
The dominant style of management is influenced in any particular situation by any
of four conditions.
244
PART 3 THE ROLE OF THE MANAGER
Managers in this position have great concern for production and little concern
for people. People are seen as ‘tools’ for production. They demand tight, uni-
lateral control in order to complete tasks efficiently. They consider creativity
and human relations to be unnecessary.
Managers in this position have great concern for people and little concern for
production. They try to avoid conflicts and concentrate on being liked, even at
the expense of production. To them the task is less important than good inter-
personal relations. Their goal is to keep people happy. (This is a soft Theory X
and not a sound human relations approach.)
This style is often referred to as laissez-faire. Leaders in this position have little
concern for people or productivity. They avoid taking sides and stay out of
conflicts. They do just enough to maintain group membership.
Leaders in this position have medium concern for both people and produc-
tion. They rely on tried and true techniques and avoid taking untested risks.
They attempt to balance their concern for both people and production, but are
not committed strongly to either. Conflict is dealt with by avoiding extremes
and seeking compromise rather than sound resolution.
This leader takes the high 9 level of concern from 9,1 and 1,9 to create a com-
bined style of controlling paternalism. The paternalist strives for high results
(high 9 from 9,1) and uses reward and punishment to gain compliance (high 9
from 1,9). The paternalist uses a high level of concern for people to reward for
compliance or punish for rejection.
The opportunist uses whatever Grid style is needed to obtain selfish interest
and self promotion. They adapt to situations to gain the maximum advantage.
They may use 9,1 to push their own goals with one person, and 1,9 to gain
trust and confidence with another. Performance occurs according to a system
of exchanges. Effort is given only for an equivalent measure of the same.
These managers demonstrate high concern for both people and production.
They work to motivate employees to reach their highest levels of accomplish-
ment. They explore alternatives openly and aggressively. They are flexible and
responsive to change. This style is considered ideal.
Table 7.1 Leadership Grid® style definitions
(Source: Blake, R. R. and McCanse, A. A. (1991) Leadership Dilemmas – Grid Solutions, Gulf Publishing Co., Houston (1991), p.29.
Reproduced by permission of Grid International, Inc.)
9,1
Authority–
compliance
management
1,9
Country club
management
1,1
Impoverished
management
5,5
Middle-of-
the-road
management
9+9
Paternalistic
‘father knows
best’
management
Opportunistic
‘what’s in it
for me’
management
9,9
Team
management
Dominant style
of management