Mullins L.J. Management and organisational behaviour, Seventh edition

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CHAPTER 5 ORGANISATIONAL GOALS, STRATEGY AND RESPONSIBILITIES

175

Business ethics is ultimately the ethics of power, of how to

handle the power of business and of how that power is

acquired, increased and exercised. The need for ethics in

business has never been greater, precisely because the

power of business was never so manifold and so extensive

as it is today.

And the growing interest in the subject may lead us to

surmise that business itself as a whole is becoming

increasingly aware of its growing power and the possibil-

ities for good or ill this brings. At its best, business is a

constructive and creative activity in society. And the sub-

ject of business ethics is best deployed when it affirms

business people while exploring with them how their power

may be used positively to best effect to add ethical value.

That is why it is a mistake to draw one’s overall image of

business from the disasters, the shambles and the scan-

dals that unfortunately occur from time to time or to adopt

an attitude of moral defeatism towards business behaviour.

Yet it would be utopian not to realise that the power of

business can be, and too often is, misused and that some

of its activities and practices could usefully carry a moral

health warning.

What business ethics as a discipline, and ethical business

as an activity, should both be trying to do is to find a way

between moral defeatism and moral utopianism, a path of

imaginative moral realism that will be continuously seeking

constructive ways for business to pursue while keeping a

wary eye open for the ethical dead ends that also lie before it.

(Reproduced with permission from Pearson Education Limited from Jack

Mahoney, Mastering Management, Financial Times Pitman Publishing, 1997.)

Figure 5.4 Ethical business circles

■ All organisations have some function to perform, and some incentive for their exis-

tence and for their operations. The goals of an organisation determine the nature of its

outputs and the series of activities through which the outputs are achieved. The goal

model approach concentrates on the study of organisational goals and the measure-

ment of success against the realisation of these goals. There are potential disadvantages

and limitations with this approach, but the concept of organisational goals serves a

number of important functions.

■ Strictly, organisations have no goals, only people do. Members of an organisation

have different and often conflicting goals. Management has a responsibility to clarify

organisational goals and to attempt to integrate personal goals with the overall objec-

tives of the organisation. Organisational goals can be classified in a number of different

ways. However, adopting a systems view of organisations, we can distinguish four main

types of goals: consumer, product, operational and secondary.

■ The goals of the organisation may be pursued in accordance with an underlying

ideology or philosophy which determines the culture of the organisation and governs

the overall conduct of its operations. In recent years growing attention has been given

to stated corporate values and mission statements. Goals are translated into objectives

and policy. The choice of objectives is an essential part of the decision-making process

involving future courses of action. Policy is developed within the framework of objec-

tives. It provides the basis for decision-making and the course of action to follow in

order to achieve objectives.

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PART 2 THE ORGANISATIONAL SETTING

CRITICAL REFLECTIONS

A National Health Service trust chairperson was heavily criticised for maintaining that the pri-

mary loyalty of doctors was owed to their employers, and that their duty to patients came a third

after themselves. But when demands upon the health service are limitless and resources finite,

why is the idea of owing first loyalty to the organisation for which you work such a bad thing?

What are your own views?

Part of our problem of dealing with ethical issues in organisations lies in the approaches we have

attempted to take. As with other areas of management, the mainstream approach has been objec-

tive and instrumental. Practitioners and researchers assume that we can define objectively the right

way of doing business – the morality of behaviour in business organisations embedded in eco-

nomic systems. And, from this definition, rules of behaviour can be laid down. This may not be a

valid approach. It is certainly not the only way of understanding the morality of business behaviour.

McKenna, R. New Management, Irwin/McGraw Hill (1999), p 138.

How would you, as a senior manager, explain the morality of business behaviour to an

ardent member of ‘Friends of the Earth’?

’Profit maximisation is the only realistic criterion by which business organisational effectiveness

can be reasonably judged.’

Debate.

SYNOPSIS

■ Objectives and policy, together, provide corporate guidelines for the operation and

management of the organisation. Although the objective of profit maximisation is

undoubtedly important, it is not by itself a sufficient criterion for the effective manage-

ment of a business organisation. In practice, there are many other considerations and

motivations which affect the desire for the greatest profit or maximum economic effi-

ciency. Attention must be given to all those areas which are of direct and vital

importance to the survival and prosperity of the organisation.

■

Objectives and policy are formalised within the framework of a corporate strategy.

An explicit strategy is necessary in order that people may co-operate and because of

the effects of changing environmental conditions. A SWOT analysis may help the

process of strategic change although care must be taken that the analysis is not over-

simplified. An effective business strategy depends upon the successful management of

opportunities and risks. Organisations need to embrace successful e-commerce and e-

business strategies.

■ In striving to satisfy its goals and achieve its objectives, the organisation cannot

operate in isolation from the environment of which it is part. Organisational survival

is dependent upon a series of exchanges between the organisation and its environ-

ment. These exchanges and the continual interaction with the environment give rise

to a number of broader responsibilities to society in general – the social responsibilities

of management and to organisational stakeholders. Full attention should also be given

to values in organisations and business ethics.

CHAPTER 5 ORGANISATIONAL GOALS, STRATEGY AND RESPONSIBILITIES

177

MANAGEMENT IN ACTION 5.1

IBM Code of Conduct

CODE OF CONDUCT: OVERVIEW

At first glance, a code of conduct may seem like a new con-

cept. But you and your employees are more familiar with it

than you know. All groups develop rules or standards of

behavior. Behaviors are what people say and do. Most often,

group norms are informal and unwritten, but some groups

have clearly recorded rules.

The Salvation Army has a code of conduct. So does the

Catholic Church and the French Foreign Legion. The commu-

nity choir, the sales staff at your local department store, and

aboriginal tribes all have a code of conduct. Without codes,

they could lapse into chaos.

Likewise, when you and your work group agree upon a

code of conduct unique to your group, some remarkable things

happen. Negative behaviors slowly extinguish themselves.

Positive behaviors replace them. That’s because group norms

are powerful influences on behavior. A code of conduct is

simply a way of consciously defining those group norms.

This QuickView answers these questions:

■ Why would I want to use a code of conduct with my

work group?

■ How do I create a code of conduct with my team or

department?

Researched, created, and reviewed by IBM Management Development Global

Cluster Team (Contact: Dick Richardson/Charlotte/IBM@IBMUS)

CODE OF CONDUCT: STEPS

Why would I want to use a code of conduct with my work group?

How do I create a code of conduct with my team or department?

Why would I want to use a code of conduct with my

work group?

Almost any group will create group norms. Norms are rules

and standards that describe appropriate group behavior.

Group norms are powerful influences on behavior.

Usually norms are developed informally over time through

the interaction of members. People may deviate from the

behavior the rest of the group expects, but at some point the

group will react with sanctions. The sanctions have the objec-



178

PART 2 THE ORGANISATIONAL SETTING

tive of bringing the member back ‘into line.’ This peer pres-

sure is a strong force for many people.

A code of conduct is simply a way of consciously

defining some group norms. It is a structured forum for the

group to determine what behaviors are appropriate.

For you as a leader it offers the opportunity to align group

norms with organizational objectives. Using a code of con-

duct will help individuals ‘manage’ their bahaviors and make

the group more productive and your job easier.

How do I create a code of conduct with my team or

department?

The seven steps for creating a code of conduct with your

work group:

1 Solicit suggested behaviors for the code from individual

team members.

2 Compile a long list of the suggested behaviors.

3 Identify overlap or redundancy in the suggestions.

4 Narrow the list.

5 Write the code of conduct.

6 Establish group commitment.

7 Live it.

Specific instructions for the seven steps:

1 Solicit suggested behaviors for the code from individ-

ual team members. Ask each group member to privately

write one or two behaviors important for the group to work

together successfully. (Examples: ‘Be on time for all meet-

ings’ or ‘Activity listen to others.’)

2 Compile a long list of suggested behaviors. Have

employees share their behaviors with the work group. You

or a scribe should list all ideas. At this stage, avoid discus-

sion about the merits of any idea.

Identify overlap or redundancy in the suggestions. Review

all the behaviors on the list. With the group, eliminate dupli-

cate behaviors. Combine similar behaviors. The behaviors

should be as clear, concise, and distinct as possible.

4 Narrow the list. The objective is to reduce the list to

between 6–10 of the most important behaviors for your

work group. You can do this by voting on each item,

having all members choose their favorite, or any other

decision-making process you want.

Tool: A good tool to use to narrow the list is multi-voting,

also called ‘Dotmocracy.’ You post a list of the behaviors.

Group members are all given the same number of votes

(perhaps 3, 4, or 5) and mark their votes on the posted

behaviors. Members can use their votes in any manner

they wish, for example, placing all votes on one behavior,

or distributing votes among several behaviors. Finally, the

process rank-orders the behaviors according to total

number of votes received.

5Write the code of conduct. The code of conduct should

begin with the words ‘We will…’ and be followed by the

behaviors the team has chosen.

6 Establish group commitment. The code of conduct is an

agreement. It’s an informal contract between each team

member and the group. Take time to discuss how viola-

tions of the code will be handled, and how the code can

and will be used by the group.

7 Live it. You have laid the foundation for future interactions

within your work group. Your code will make your team

more productive – provided you adhere to it and keep it

‘alive.’ Some teams go to great lengths to have their

codes framed and professionally presented. Another way

is to memorize it and refer to it in your dealings with one

another. Virtual teams that work in a shared workspace

may post their code in their space to keep it ‘alive.’ Having

it posted enables new members to quickly understand the

team’s values and to learn how to work together.

Tool: ‘Finger shoot’ is a quick method to assess whether

your code of conduct is working. To conduct a finger

shoot, select the first item on your code. Ask everyone to

consider the question: ‘How well are we as a group living

up to our promise to each other?’ Then ask them to score

their response on a scale from 1 finger to 5 fingers. All

indicate their scores at the same time by showing a cer-

tain number of fingers. Debrief the scoring and why people

scored as they did. Then do the same with the rest of the

items on the code of conduct.

In time, you may want to reassess your code of conduct.

Have the team ask itself, ‘Are all items still relevant?’ ‘Have

new issues arisen that should be addressed by the codes?’

You may find the code changing over time. Or, like the

Salvation Army, you may be comfortable that your code is a

timeless standard for your group.

Reprinted with permission. I am grateful to Lynn Thomson, First Line Manager,

IBM (UK) Ltd.

Management in Action 5.1 continued

CHAPTER 5 ORGANISATIONAL GOALS, STRATEGY AND RESPONSIBILITIES

179

a Detail fully what you believe are the social responsibilities or obligations of your own, or

some other work organisation of your choice and identify the major stakeholders.

b Give specific examples of the ways in which the organisation has attempted to satisfy,

and/or has failed to satisfy, responsibilities or obligations to these stakeholders.

c Specify the extent to which attention has been given to values in the organisation, and to the

principles, standards and expected practices or judgements of ‘good’ (ethical) behaviour.

d Compare your observations with those of your colleagues and summarise what conclu-

sions you draw.

ASSIGNMENT

1 What are goals and what functions are served by organisational goals? Suggest a classifi-

cation of organisational goals and relate this to your own organisation.

2 Illustrate the systems view of organisational goals and objectives. Give examples of how

the goals of an organisation may change over time. Why is it that in practice organisational

goals usually tend to be altered only on a gradual basis?

3 What do you see as the importance of organisational ideology or philosophy? Explain the

extent to which there is a clear ideology and/or set of principles which govern the overall

conduct of your own organisation.

4 Distinguish between objectives and policy. Identify examples of objectives and policy in

your own organisation, and comment on how effectively you believe they have been imple-

mented.

5 Discuss critically the extent to which profit maximisation is a sufficient criterion for the

effective management of a business organisation. What other indicators might be applied

in terms of organisational performance and results?

6 Explain the need for a corporate strategy and attempt to examine the corporate plan for

your own or some other organisation. Suggest criteria for the evaluation of an appropriate

mix of activities.

7 Assess the practical relevance of (i) the concept of synergy and (ii) a SWOT analysis.

8 Discuss critically the extent to which you accept the concept of corporate social respon-

sibilities.

9 How would you attempt to explain the meaning and significance of organisational values

and business ethics?

REVIEW AND DISCUSSION QUESTIONS

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PART 2 THE ORGANISATIONAL SETTING

OBJECTIVES

Completing this exercise should help you to enhance the following skills:

 Clarify the work values and beliefs that are important to you.

 Examine your sensitivity to, and dealings with, other people.

 Debate and justify with colleagues the nature of your values and beliefs.

EXERCISE

You are required to:

1 Rate the following items: 5 (extremely important for me); 4 (very important for me); 3 (aver-

age importance for me); 2 (not important for me); 1 (I would oppose this). What is required

are your genuine beliefs and feelings about each item, not what others think or believe, but

what you personally and honestly believe and feel about each item.

1 There should be clear allocation of objectives and accountability for them

—

2We should be open and honest in all our dealings with each other

—

3 People’s talents should be recognised, developed and correctly utilised

—

4 One should give acknowledgement and praise to those in authority

—

5 There are clear rules about what we should and should not do in getting the

job done

—

6 Conflicts should be surfaced and resolved rather than allowed to simmer

—

7 The causes of problems should be directed away from oneself

—

8 Encouragement and support should be placed above criticism

—

9Problems should be tackled and resolved in co-operation with others

—

10 What is right should be placed above who is right

—

11 Clear standard procedures should be in place for all important jobs

—

12 One should become visible and build up one’s personal image

—

13 Equity and fairness should be applied to all regardless of status or standing

—

14 Excellence should be our aim in all that we do professionally and administratively

—

15 We give close attention to codes of conduct since this is what builds character

—

16 We should keep each other informed and practise open and friendly

communication

—

17 We know who should be making the decisions and refer decisions to the

right person

—

18 Everyone and their contribution should be treated with respect and dignity

—

19 We should meet all our commitments to one another – we do what we say we

will do

—

20 One should form networks of support among those with influence

—

21 There are clear reporting relationships – who reports to who – and we stick

to them

—

PERSONAL AWARENESS AND SKILLS EXERCISE

CHAPTER 5 ORGANISATIONAL GOALS, STRATEGY AND RESPONSIBILITIES

181

22 People should take responsibility for their own decisions and actions

—

23 Everyone should be commited to personal growth and life-long learning

—

24 Situations or events should be created so as to justify the advancement of

one’s goals

—

25 Performance should be assessed against objectives and standards declared

up-front

—

26 Policies should be clear and not changed until there is proof that they need

changing

—

27 Everyone’s needs should be given equal standing regardless of their position

or status

—

28 We should be committed to the service of others rather than ourselves

—

29 Positive relationships should be established with those who have influence

—

30 Warmth and affection should be demonstrated in our work relationships

—

31 Individual productivity and performance should be encouraged and actively

promoted

—

32 We all know what our jobs are and stick to our defined responsibilities

—

33 Those from disadvantaged backgrounds should be helped to catch up with others

—

34 One should expect to get support from those to whom we have given past support

—

35 Goals should be challenging and stretch people to higher levels of achievement

—

2 In small groups, compare and discuss, frankly and openly, your ratings with those of your

colleagues. Be prepared to justify your ratings but also listen with an open mind to the

views of your colleagues.

Further information will be provided by your tutor.

DISCUSSION

■ How difficult was it for you to complete your ratings?

■ How much agreement was there among members of your group? Did this surprise you?

■ To what extent were you influenced to rethink your values or beliefs?

Visit our website www.booksites.net/mullins for further questions, annotated weblinks,

case material and Internet research material.

182

PART 2 THE ORGANISATIONAL SETTING

CASE STUDY 5.1

Mergers and acquisitions: the consequences of expansion at

Square Deal plc

Square Deal plc is a newly formed subsidiary company

of Square Deal International Inc. The intention is to

use it to unify the efforts and improve the profitability

of the hitherto separate UK subsidiaries of Arnold plc,

Carlton plc and Foodrich plc. At present it has a man-

aging director, an administrative/ financial controller

and a typist all sharing a large temporary office in

central London.

Arnold plc has 69 food stores, all within a radius of

30 miles from London. Most of them contain either a

small restaurant or a snack bar and occupy high street

or suburban shopping centre locations. It owns one

small bakery whose total production supplies ten

stores with bread and cakes. Perishables for both re-

sale and restaurant use are bought locally but all other

products are bought centrally and distributed from

one large warehouse. These products are charged to

the stores at selling price on computer-printed internal

invoices. Store managers are judged solely on revenue.

Accounts for each store are produced on the batch

computer system at head office which is an old build-

ing on the edge of a dockland redevelopment site in

East London. The company owns the freehold, as it

does of about half of its food stores.

Carlton plc has joint managing directors, one in

charge of 21 restaurants and one in charge of prop-

erty development. To date it has built four shopping

centres and has plans for three more, all as part of

schemes to regenerate old city centres in the north

of England, around 150 miles from London. It leases

out the shops with the exception of one per centre

which it operates as a restaurant. Both MDs rigidly

pursue a 15 per cent annual return on investment as

their measure of achievement.

Foodrich plc was, until last year, a family firm

which canned fruit and vegetables from its one fac-

tory situated about 100 miles from London, in the

west of England. It was bought by Square Deal

International Inc with the idea that it would supply

‘own label’ products to Arnold plc and large catering

packs to both Arnold’s and Carlton’s restaurants. To

do this, Foodrich was obliged to deny supplies to

some of its regular customers and re-equip part of its

plant to handle the large catering packs. The MD, son

of the founder, has worked there for nearly 40 years

and runs the company, making all decisions, both

long term and operational, using his experience and

intuition. He is furious to learn that Arnold has not

put all its ‘own label’ business in his direction and

Carlton is still buying most catering packs from

Foodrich’s competitors while its new plant is grossly

YOUR TASKS

(a) Discuss the benefits and drawbacks of judging

performance on a single criterion such as:

(i) revenue, in the case of the store managers;

(ii) return on investment, in the case of Carlton’s

MDs.

(b) Explain to what extent Arnold’s head buyer and

Carlton’s head chef are justified in buying catering

packs from other companies.

this quest for unification and profit improvement.

(d)

After you have finished this task, the MD tells you he

is toying with the idea of regrouping the company

under the name of Square Deal plc and dividing it

into the following divisions, each operating as a

profit centre:

Square Deal plc

Restaurants Property Food retail Canning Bakery

division division division division division

He is concerned about the effects of such a

change on the morale of the managers and other

employees so he asks you for a further statement.

Discuss ideas that should maintain or improve

morale if this regrouping were to take place.

(e) Highlight any other advantages or difficulties that

you foresee in the regrouping idea.

Photo: Robert Lawson/Anthony Blake Picture Library

CHAPTER 5 ORGANISATIONAL GOALS, STRATEGY AND RESPONSIBILITIES

under-used. Both Arnold’s head buyer and the head

chef at Carlton’s claim they get the same quality

cheaper from other companies. These recent changes

at Foodrich have overwhelmed the MD and one

result is that the financial year end accounts up until

April will not be ready until some time in August.

The accounts are the only defined measure of per-

formance and are usually drawn up by the MD.

The MD of Square Deal plc has just spent a week

touring parts of these three subsidiaries and has

returned to the office with a variety of ideas and

concerns about ways to unify efforts and improve

profitability. To help crystallise some of these ideas

he asks the administrator/controller to prepare writ-

ten statements on various points. Assume you are

this administrator/controller.

Late in 2001, the founder and Chief Executive Officer

(CEO) of Top-to-Toe, Joanne Dunne, announced the

decision to open up distribution by using the device

of house parties.

The house party involves salespeople making pre-

sentations of products in a person’s home to which

the host invites a number of friends and acquain-

tances who make orders at the end of the party.

A successful niche retailer of environmentally

friendly toiletries and cosmetics, Top-to-Toe has

expanded its market geographically using franchis-

ing to ensure local management knowledge and

commitment. It has now come up against the state-

gic weakness of a niche strategy: how to grow once

the niche is saturated. 2001 saw pre-tax profits fall

by 26% to £5.1m.

Joanne Dunne now believes that home selling

could provide Top-to-Toe with a significant new

source of growth, thanks to its advantages of conven-

ience, demonstration, product sampling and the

networking of party-givers through their friends. This

involves, in effect, a ‘re-invention’ of the company.

Dunne also hit out at the financial institutions for

their ‘short-termism’, demanding the highest profits

in the shortest possible time and failing to recognise

that companies need time for reflection and re-

invention. Top-to-Toe has come under pressure from

city analysts in recent months for its failure to

address the issue of falling profits. She says that the

financial community ignores the human spirit and

the fact that working should be about building posi-

tive and fulfilling relationships. There should be joy

in the workplace and concern for the communities

where raw materials are sourced and products manu-

factured – not just obsession with profits.

Joanne Dunne may be more outspoken than

others but she is not alone in recognising that

people are the greatest asset of the business. The

quality of customer care is increasingly the basis for

competitive advantage and effective customer care

depends on skilled, empowered and motivated staff.

Perhaps joy in the workplace is not at odds with

maximising profits after all.

Sunday Bugle, 22 January 2002

YOUR TASKS

Top-to-Toe’s strategy of expansion into home selling

will involve managing and motivating a large team of

part-time sales staff on a commissionn-only salary.

The company is also keen to address the pressure

from investors and analysts. You are asked to:

(a)

Prepare a report for Joanne Dunne indicating the

mangement issues that might arise from this expan-

sion strategy and how these could be addressed.

(b) Using Top-to-Toe as one example, write a news-

paper article outlining the importance of social

responsibility in business, bearing in mind the

pressures for short-term profits.

183

CASE STUDY 5.2

Welcome to the party: home selling with Top-to-Toe

The following article appeared in the press earlier this year:

184

PART 2 THE ORGANISATIONAL SETTING

NOTES AND REFERENCES

1. See, for example: Morley, M. ‘What Business Are You

In?’, Professional Manager, March 1997, pp. 12–13.

2. Etzioni, A. Modern Organizations, Prentice-Hall (1964).

3. Simon, H. A. ‘On the Concept of Organizational

Goal’, Administrative Science Quarterly, vol. 10, June

1964, pp. 1–22.

4. See, for example: Kast, F. E. and Rosenzweig, J. E.

Organization and Management: A Systems and Contingency

Approach, Fourth edition, McGraw-Hill (1985).

5. See, for example: Heller, R. ‘The Manager’s Dilemma’,

Management Today, January 1994, pp. 42–7.

6. Pitman, Sir Brian ‘In my Opinion’, Management Today,

June 2000, p.14.

7. Mills, D. Q. and Friesen, G. B. ‘Empowerment’ in

Crainer, S. and Dearlove, D. Financial Times Handbook of

Management, Second edition, Financial Times Prentice

Hall (2001), p. 335.

8. A view expressed by a number of writers including, for

example: Argyris, C. Integrating the Individual and the

Organization, John Wiley and Sons (1964).

9. McGregor, D. The Human Side of Enterprise, Penguin

(1987), p. 55.

10.

Etzioni, A. A Comparative Analysis of Complex

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Development’, Leadership and Organization Development

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Difference’, Professional Manager, November 1999,

pp. 10–12

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in Chowdhury, S. Management 21C, Financial Times

Prentice Hall (2000), p. 110.

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and the Rise of Organizational Democracy, Jossey-Bass

(2002).

16. For a discussion and examples of mission and objec-

tives, see, for example: Lynch, R. Corporate Strategy,

Third edition, Financial Times Prentice Hall (2003).

17. Mills, D. Q. and Friesen, G. B. ‘Empowerment’ in

Crainer, S. and Dearlove, D. Financial Times Handbook

of Management, Second edition, Financial Times

Prentice Hall (2001), p. 334.

18. Johnson, G. and Scholes, K. Exploring Corporate Strategy,

Sixth edition, Financial Times Prentice Hall (2002).

19.

Perrin, L. and Tavakoli, I. ‘Mission Impossible Without

Commitment’, Professional Manager, July 1997, pp. 14–15.

20. Rigby, R. ‘Mission Statements’, Management Today,

March 1998, pp. 36–58.

21.

Trapp, R. ‘Blunder Boss’, The British Journal of

Administrative Management, July/August 1999, pp. 12–16.

22. Riches, A. ‘How Valuable Are Your Values?’,

Organisational Change & Leadership Development,

www.anneriches.com.au, accessed 11 March 2003.

23. Gratton, L. Living Strategy: Putting People at the Heart of

Corporate Purpose, Financial Times Prentice Hall (2000),

p. 55.

24. Fayol, H. General and Industrial Management, Pitman

(1949), p. 53.

25. Norris, P. ‘Pay For Performance’, Chartered Secretary,

February 1997, pp. 18–19.

26. See, for example: Torrington, D., Weightman, J. and

Johns, K. Effective Management: People and Organ-

isation, Second edition, Prentice-Hall (1994).

27.

For a fuller discussion of strategic management and plan-

ning see, for example: Asch, D. and Bowman, C. (eds)

Readings in Strategic Management, Macmillan (1989).

28.

Summers, J. and Nowicki, M. ‘Achievement and Balance:

What Do Managers Really Want?’, Healthcare Financial

Management, vol. 56, no. 3, March 2002, pp. 80–84.

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‘Six Keys to Creating New-Growth Businesses’, Harvard

Management Update, 2003, p. 3.

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Firm, Second edition, Blackwell (1992).

31. Drucker, P. F. The Practice of Management, Heinemann

Professional (1989), p. 59.

32. Etzioni, A. Modern Organizations, Prentice-Hall (1964),

p. 17.

33. Simon, H. A. ‘On the Concept of Organizational

Goal’, Administrative Science Quarterly, vol. 10, June

1964, p. 21.

34. Kaplan, R. S. and Norton, D. P. The Balanced Scorecard:

Translating Strategy into Action, Harvard Business

School Press (1996).

35. Van de Vliet, A. ‘The New Balancing Act’, Management

Today, July 1997, pp. 78–80.

36. Tonge, R. and Callaghan, C. ‘Using the Balanced

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