Lyons W.C. (ed.). Standard handbook of petroleum and natural gas engineering.2001- Volume 1
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Engineering Design
375
and
114
is
n4
=
(d,
-
d,)’6i.
In dimensional form
II,
and each variable of
II,
becomes
(F” Lo)
=
(FL*)”
(FL)b
(L)’
and for
lT2
(Fo
Lo)
=
(FL)d
(F)’
(L)‘
and for
lI3
(P
LO)
=
(L)P
(L)h
and for
114
(Fo
LO)
=
(L)’(L)i
For
II,
the equations for a, b and c are
ForceF:
O=
a+b
LengthL:
O=
2a+b+c
This yields b
=
-a and c
=
a, which
is
n
=
Ela
~-a
La
l
or
II,
=
[F,l/T
L]”
and since
Ill
is a dimensionless ratio, then the actual value
of
a
is
not important.
Therefore, the above becomes simply
II,
=
EI/T L.
Similarly it
is
found that
112
=
T/P
L
“9
=
LAd,
-
d,)
and
These
II
ratios allow the following relationships to be made between the
performance characteristics found for a small-scale experimental model and a full-
scale prototype:
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General Engineering and Science
and
The above
n
ratios can be used as the basis for a small-scale experiment to obtain
data that might allow an investigator to determine the number of helixes
N,
and the
shortening
6,
that will occur in a full-scale tubing string under particular torsional
post-buckling conditions (see Figures
2-83
and
2-84).
The small-scale experiment will
yield experimental data that can be related through the
H
ratios to the full-scale
prototype. The use of
ll
ratios and experimental data requires extensive statistical
and deterministic analyses.
Analysis, Synthesis and the Creative Art
of
Design
Evolution was an early engineering design methodology. This methodology
(basically trial and error) is a primitive form of physical modeling. Prior to the
development of more sophisticated engineering design methodologies, the only way
N
1
10
Figure
2-83.
Typical Plot of
N
(number of helixes) versus Torque (for specific
geometry ratios).
Engineering Design
377
1
10
Figure
2-84.
Typical
Plot
of
d
(shortening) versus Torque
(for
specific geometry
ratios).
to develop a useful device
or
system was to fabricate a conceptual design and put it
into operation. If the design failed to meet the desired specifications, then the failure
was analyzed and the appropriate changes made to the design and another product
fabricated and placed into operation. But design by evolution was not very economical
and
as
engineering design methodologies were developed that would allow for design
choices to be made without resorting to costly fabrication, design engineers were
driven to accept these new methodologies. Modern engineering design methodologies
are based on the design engineer’s ability to appropriately utilize analysis and synthesis
to
create the desired device or system
[73,74,75,76].
Nearly all modern engineering design situations require the use of models, both
mathematical and physical. Once societal needs are defined, the designer specifies
the performance characteristics required for a design. Also, at this point, the designer
can often sketch or otherwise define the various initial alternative design concepts.
The designer then separates each alternative design concept into parts that are
tractable to either mathematical or physical modeling (or both). The designer utilizes
a wide variety of analysis techniques (inherit in mathematical models but also part
of
the assessment of test data from physical models) to attempt to predict the performance
characteristics of the various proposed alternative design concepts. This usually
requires repeated analysis and the development of numerous sketches and fabrication
drawings for the separate parts of each proposed alternative design concept.
Thus,
the design of a device or system is a lengthy iterative process.
Once the designer has developed confidence in the analysis techniques pertaining
to the various parts of a design concept (whether derived from mathematical models
or from physical models), the designer can begin the process of synthesis. Synthesis
is basically the combining of the analyses (and any other pertinent information) to
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General Engineering and Science
allow for the design concept to be viewed as a whole. In general, it is during the
process of synthesis that the creative capabilities of the individual designer are utilized
the most. The designer utilizes knowledge of the performance specifications, results
from modeling, economics, experience with other similar projects, aesthetics (if
needed), and intuition to create many easy-to-make choices concerning the design.
Thus, the synthesis process often allows the designer to proceed to the final design
of a device or system with little iteration.
Creativity in engineering is the art portion of engineering. It is a unique sum of an
individual design engineer’s experience, practice and intuition with
a
flair for the
aesthetic. Creativity can be found in any part of the engineering design process, but
it is usually in the synthesis portion of the process that
a
designer’s aptitude for
creativity can make the difference between a mediocre design and a truly successful
design. Thus, creativity is an essential part of the engineering method.
Feasibility
Studies
and
Economics
Once an engineering design has been identified (that will meet the performance
specifications) it is necessary to ask a very important question, “Can and should the
device or system be made?” In general, this question can be divided into three corollary
questions
[73]:
1.
Can the design of the anticipated alternative devices or systems be physically
2.
Is
the production of alternative devices or systems compatible with the
3.
Can the alternative devices or systems be economically produced and
realized?
capabilities and goals of the producing company?
economically operated?
Only if all of the above three questions are answered in
the
affirmative can and
should the device of system be made. The gathering of information to answer these
questions is called the feasibility study.
Physical realizability is often the most difficult of the above three corollary questions
to answer. In general, to answer this question it is necessary to know;
1)
whether the
materials and components required by the engineering design are available; and
2)
whether the manufacturing (and/or fabrication) techniques and skilled craftsmen
needed to fabricate the product are also available. These two assessments are difficult
to make because they often involve the projection of future technological develop
ments. Technological developments usually do not occur according to schedule.
Company compatibility requires the analysis
of
the engineering, manufacturing
(with quality assurance), distribution, and sales capabilities of an organization to
produce and realize a profit from a given engineering design or product. Often an
engineering department within a company may be capable of designing a particular
device or system, but the production
and
sales departments are not capable
of
carrying
out their respective tasks. Also, a new product line under consideration may be beyond
the scope
of
the overall business goals and objectives of the company.
As
in all business situations, the economics of the development of a newly designed
device or system is of paramount importance. In order to fully understand the economic
feasibility
of
a new design, the engineer must make the following economic assessments:
1.
Evaluate two or more manufacturing techniques.
2.
If components
of
a
new system design are available from sources outside the
company, then an evaluation must be made as to whether it is more economic
to buy these components from outside or to manufacture them within.
Engineering Design
379
3.
Engineers
will
constantly seek ways of reducing manufacturing costs. As these
design modifications are made, economic evaluations of changes must be made.
4.
An overall economic evaluation must be made to ensure that the contemplated
project for petroleum development will recover sufficient capital to pay for the
total cost of development, installation and assembly effort of the company.
Further, the capital return must yield a financial return consistent with the
overall company risk involved. Thus,
it
is very important that the petroleum
engineer designing a recovery system understand the company’s evaluation
criteria that
will
be used by management in judging whether a new project is to
go
forward. Chapter
7
(Petroleum Economics) has detailed discussions of general
engineering economics and product (or project) evaluation criteria.
Design in the Petroleum Industry
Producing and Service Companies
The petroleum industry is a highly complex primary industry. Its function in society
is
to
provide a reliable supply of liquid
and
gaseous hydrocarbon fuels and lubricants
(and well as other related products) for both industrial and private customers. The
industry is composed of two basic business elements
1
)
producing companies (often
called operating companies) and
2)
service companies.
Producing companies locate the subsurface petroleum resources; recover the oil,
gas
or
condensate; and then market the recovered resource to customers. These
activities involves planning and carrying out exploration, drilling and well completion,
and the production activities.
The service companies provide a supporting role to the producing companies.
They supply the products and services that allow the producing companies to explore,
drill and complete wells, and produce the petroleum from the earth. Once the
petroleum has been brought
to
the surface, the service companies also assist in
providing safe transportation of the petroleum to refining facilities. There is a great
variety of service companies. Many service companies are dedicated only to supporting
the producing companies (e.g., geophysical surveying) while other service companies
supply products and services to a number of primary industries.
Service Company Product Design
In general, engineering design of devices
or
systems takes place throughout the
petroleum industry. However, service industries are responsible for supplying (thus,
designing and
manufacturindfabricating)
the vast majority
of
the devices and systems
(and often the personnel to operate them) that are utilized by the producing
companies. Therefore, the service companies do far more traditional device and
system engineering design than the producing companies (e.g., geophysical survey
tool design, drilling fluid design, drill bit design, cement design and placement system
design, production pump design, etc.). Because of the complexity of the petroleum
industry, these engineering design activities cover all three of the basic engineering
fields (e.g., mechanical arts and sciences, the chemical arts and sciences, and the
electrical arts and sciences).
Producing Company Project Design
The producing companies are responsible for carrying out the complex operations
of exploration, drilling and completion, and production. These projects vary from
the seeking oil and gas deposits at
15,000
ft of depth in the continental
US.
to seeking
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General Engineering and Science
similar deposits at
15,000
ft below some remote ocean floor. The engineering planning
and design of these complex projects is a special class of systems engineering design.
Although dealing with quite different technologies, production operations have similar
concerns related to overall system outcome as do large mining projects
or
large
civil
engineering projects (such as the construction of a dam
or
large transportation system).
Thus, the engineering project design and management aspects of systems engineering
are of primary interest to the engineering staffs
of
the producing companies
[77].
Engineering
Ethics
The
Profession of Engineering
An engineer is a professional in exactly the same context as a medical doctor, a
lawyer, clergy, teacher, etc. The dictionary defines a “profession” as
“an occupation requiring advanced education.”
In this context
an
advanced education means
an
academic education beyond secondary
education. The term ”professional” is defined as
“connected with,
or
engaged in a profession.”
The professional should not be confused with the other occupations that make up
the economic doers in modern society, namely craftsmen, tradesmen, and laborers.
The difference between these other occupations and the professional is in the
definition of the profession and professional. Very few occupations
require
an advanced
education to be employed in that occupation. A plumber does not have to have an
advanced academic education to be in the plumbing business. But the plumber does
have to have certain manual skills in order to be successful in that occupation. Thus,
the plumber is a craftsman. A banker does not have to have an advanced education to
be
in the banking business. Also, the banker does not have to have any particular
manual
skills
to
be
a banker. Thus, the banker is considered to be a tradesman. It should
be noted that the definition of the term “professional” does not depend upon whether
the engineer
(or
medical doctor, etc.) is legally registered (with a state board) as a licensed
professional engineer
(or
registered
as
a licensed medical doctor, etc.)
[78].
There are certain unwritten accepted societal ideals that also separate professionals
from the other occupations. The most important of these is that professionals, in
carrying out the duties of their respective professions, usually are doing work that
can affect society. This is particularly true of the engineering profession. The
engineering profession designs many devices and systems that if not designed correctly
and fail can have catastrophic effects on society as a whole.
For
example, when a civil
engineer does not correctly design a community water supply and sewer system and
the community becomes sick from contaminated drinking water, then society as a
whole suffers from the civil engineer’s incompetence. Likewise, when a petroleum
engineer does not correctly design the reserve pits at the drilling location and drilling
mud contaminated with crude oil is washed into a nearby stream, society as a whole
suffers from the petroleum engineer’s incompetence. Also, when a petroleum engineer
plans and operates a drilling location that is quite near a high voltage power line and
fails
to
get the local power company to either provide a by-pass line
or
rubber boot
the line, and subsequently a crane operator on location is electrocuted, society as a
whole suffers from the petroleum engineer’s incompetence. In this case, “society”
is
represented by the craftsmen and laborers working at the location
[79,80].
Engineering Design
381
NSPE Code
of
Ethics
All professional groups in society have a code of ethics to guide their respective
members as they carry out their professional duties for society. There is a general
code of ethics of the National Society of Professional Engineers (NSPE) which basically
covers all registered professional engineers regardless of specific discipline. The
preamble and fundamental canons of the NSPE Code of Ethics is given below [81].
Preamble.
Engineering is an important and learned profession. The members of the
profession recognize that their work has a direct and vital impact on the quality of
life for all people. Accordingly, the services provided by engineers require honesty,
safety and welfare. In the practice of their profession, engineers must perform under
a standard of professional behavior which requires adherence to the highest principles
of ethical conduct on behalf of the public, clients, employers and the profession.
Fundamental Canons.
Engineers, in the fulfillment of their professional duties, shall:
1.
Hold paramount the safety, health and welfare of the public in the performance
2.
Perform services only in areas of their competence.
3.
Issue public statements only in
an
objective and truthful manner.
4.
Act in professional matters for each employer or client as faithful agents or
5.
Avoid deceptive acts in the solicitation of professional employment.
of their professional duties.
trustees.
SPE Code
of
Ethics
Each specific engineering discipline has developed its own code of ethics. These
discipline specific codes of ethics generally reflect the working situations that are
relevant that discipline. This can be seen in the Society of Petroleum Engineers (SPE),
Guide for Professional Conduct. Because the devices and systems that petroleum
engineers design are usually in operational locations that are remote from most of
general public, the issue concerning the “safety, health and welfare of the public”
is
not as immediate to the petroleum engineer as
it
is
to other disciplines (e.g., civil
engineers). Thus, the “safety, health and welfare of the public”
is
found further down
in this list of canons than in the NSPE Code of Ethics. The preamble, the fundamental
principle, and the canons of professional conduct of the SPE Guide for Professional
Conduct is given below
[82].
Preamble.
Engineers recognize that the practice of engineering has a direct and
vital influence on the quality of life of all people. Therefore, engineers should exhibit
high standards of competency, honesty, and impartiality; be fair and equitable; and
accept a personal responsibility for adherence to applicable laws, the protection of
the public health, and maintenance of safety in their professional actions and behavior.
These principles govern professional conduct in serving the interests of the public,
clients, employers, colleagues, and the profession.
The Fundamental Princlple.
The engineer as a professional is dedicated to improving
competence, service, fairness, and the exercise of well-founded judgment in the
practice of engineering for the public, employers, and clients with fundamental
concern for the public health and safety in the pursuit of this practice.
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General Engineering and Science
Canons
of
Professional Conduct.
1.
Engineers offer services in the areas of their competence affording full
disclosure of their qualifications.
2.
Engineers consider the consequences of their work and societal issues pertinent
to it and seek to extend public understanding of those relationships.
3.
Engineers are honest, truthful, and fair in presenting information and in making
public statements reflecting on professional matters and their professional
role.
4.
Engineers engage in professional relationships without bias because of race,
religion, sex, age, national origin, or handicap.
5.
Engineers act in professional matters for each employer or client as faithful
agents or trustees disclosing nothing of a proprietary nature concerning the
business affairs or technical processes
of
any present or former client or
employer without specific consent.
6.
Engineers disclose to affected parties known or potential conflicts of interest
or other circumstances which might influence or appear to influence judgment
or impair the fairness or quality of their performance.
7.
Engineers are responsible for enhancing their professional competence
throughout their careers and for encouraging similar actions by their colleagues.
8.
Engineers accept responsibility for their actions; seek and acknowledge
criticism of their work; offer honest criticism of the work of others; properly
credit the contributions of others; and do not accept credit for work not theirs.
9.
Engineers, perceiving a consequence of their professional duties to adversely
affect the present or future public health and safety, shall formally advise
their employers
of
clients and, if warranted, consider further disclosure.
10.
Engineers act in accordance with all applicable laws and the canons of ethics
as applicable to the practice of engineering as stated in the laws and regulations
governing the practice of engineering in their country, territory, or state, and
lend support to others who strive to do likewise.
Intellectual Property
Since one
of
the main focuses of the engineer is to provide technological solutions
for the needs of society, then creative invention is a major part of the engineer’s
design activity. Therefore, the engineer must be familiar with the current laws (and
any imminent future changes in the laws) for the protections
of
intellectual property.
Intellectual property is composed of four separate legal entities. These are trade
secrets, patents, trademarks, and copyrights.
Trade Secrets
Trade secrets are creative works (usually methods, processes, or designs) that are
not covered by the strict definition of “an invention” required for a legal patent. Or
they are actual inventions that a company or individual does not want to expose to
public scrutiny through the patent process (since the published patent must contain
a written description of the invention).
Companies
and
individuals have the legal right to protect and maintain trade secrets.
The key point, however, is that trade secrets must be something that can be kept
secret. Anyone who discovers a trade secret via his or her own efforts may use it. The
only legal protection for trade secrets is against persons who obtain these secrets by
stealing them and then using them, or after having been entrusted with these secrets
as a necessary part of their
job
and then using them
[73,83].
Engineering Design
383
The term trade secret is well understood by
U.S.
courts and is a legal term. In
general, the
US.
courts have strongly upheld the protection of company- or individual-
owned trade secrets. Cases against exemployees
or
others who have obtained trade
secrets by stealth are relatively easy to prosecute (compared to patent, trademark, or
copyright infringement cases).
Patents
When the
U.S.
Constitution was framed in 1789 it contained this provision (Article 1,
Section
8)
[83,84,85,86]:
“The Congress shall have power to promote the progress of science and useful
arts by securing for limited times to authors and inventors the exclusive right to
their respective writings and discoveries.”
In
1790
the formal
US.
Patent system was founded. Since that time the
U.S.
Patent
Office has undergone numerous changes that have generally improved legal protection
for intellectual property owned by individual citizens.
A
US.
Patent is a legal document granted only to the individual inventor that
allows the inventor to have the exclusive right for a limited time to exclude all others
from making, using or selling his or her invention in the
U.S.
There are restrictions
to this statement. An inventor does not have an absolute right to use his or her patented
invention, if doing
so
would
also involve making, using or selling another invention
patented by someone else. The time limits for the exclusive use of an invention by the
inventor are fixed by low and can only be extended in special circumstances. After
this time limit expires, anyone may make and sell the invention without permission
of the inventor. There
are
three legal categories of patents; utility patents, design
patents, and plant patents.
Utility Patents.
Utility patents are granted to individuals only who have invented or
discovered any new and useful method, process, machine, manufacture, or matter
composition. These patents must be useful to society (have utility).
A
utility patent
has a total time limit for exclusive use by the inventor of 17 years.
Design Patents.
Design patents are granted to individuals who have invented new,
original and ornamental designs for an article of manufacture.
A
design patent has a
total time limit for exclusive use by the inventor of
14
years.
Plant Patents.
Plant patents are granted to individuals who have invented or
discovered and a sexually reproduced a new and distinct variety of plant. This includes
mutants, hybrids, and newly found seedlings.
A
plant patent has
a
total time limit for
exclusive use by the inventor of 17 years.
Only the actual inventor may apply for a patent (utility, design, or plant patent).
Once a patent has been obtained, the patent can be sold or mortgaged.
Also,
the
owner of
a
patent may assign part or all interest in the patent to another individual or
a company or other business entity. The owner
of
a patent may also grant licenses to
others (either individuals or business entities) to make, use or sell the invention.
In
addition to each
of
the above patent’s unique characteristic (Le., utility,
ornamental or original design, be a plant), an invention, in order
to
be granted a
US.
Patent, must demonstrate two additional characteristics:
1
)
the invention must be
novel; and
2)
the invention must not be obvious. The steps to pursue to obtain a
patent are as follows:
384
General Engineering and Science
1.
Make sure the invention is new and practical and is not already in use. This
requires a preliminary search
of
the industrial literature to determine if the
invention is practical and is not already in use in the public domain.
2.
Keep records that document when and what was invented.
It
is important that
accurate records are kept showing your original sketches with a disclosure
statement describing what and how your invention works. It is useful to have
someone witness this disclosure document and verify the date that this invention
took place. It is often during this step that the invention concept is either modeled
(mathematical or physical or both) and tested. Thus, accurate records of these
analyzes or test results should also be kept. In the
U.S.
it is the first to invent
that
will
obtain a patent in the event of two individuals inventing the same
thing. Keep the disclosure document secret until the patent application
is
submitted
to
the patent office.
3.
Search the existing patents relating to the invention. Carry out an extensive
patent search of existing patents to find patents that are related to the new
invention. Make sure the new invention is novel
and
unobvious and is not in
conflict with existing patents. A search
of
U.S.
patents can be made in the Search
Room
of
the
U.S.
Patent and Trademark Office in Crystal Plaza,
2021
Jefferson
Davis Highway, Arlington Virginia. An individual inventor or a patent attorney
may hire agents that
will
carry out thorough patent searches. in addition, every
state in the
US.
has a
U.S.
Patent Depository Library where patent searches
may be conducted by private individuals.
4.
Prepare and file the patent application documents. This document is called a
“specification.” The specification must
be
clear enough
so
that anyone skilled
in the subject matter of the invention could recreate your invention and use it.
In the written portion of the specifications the inventor must state the claims
of
the invention. These claims must show that the invention is novel and unobvious.
Also, where applicable, illustrations must accompany the specification. There
are filing fees for patent applications and
if
the application is successful there
are maintenance fees to keep the patent in force. Literature describing patent
applications and how they are to be submitted can be obtained from the
Commissioner of Patents and Trademarks, Washington,
D.
C.,
20231.
This is
also the address
to
submit properly prepared patent applications.
Infringement of a patent occurs when an individual or company makes, uses,
or
sells an invention without the permission of the inventor, assignee, owner, or licensee.
The
U.S.
courts
will
award damages and place penalties on the infringer. But patent
infringement cases are very costly and time consuming.
Any inventor may apply for a patent regardless of age, sex, or citizenship. Once a
U.S.
Patent has been granted most other countries allow the inventor up
to
one year
to submit a patent application
for
a foreign patent. The exception is Japan which
requires nearly immediate submittal of a patent application to the Japanese patent
office at nearly the same time the inventor is submitting
to
the
U.S.
Patent office.
It should be noted that all other countries grant patents to inventors that are the
first to submit patent applications to their respective patent offices. We are the only
country the grants a patent
to
the first to invent (not the first
to
the patent office),
However, in
2003
the
US.
may change to the “first to the patent office” method of
granting patents.
Trademarks
A trademark is any work, name, symbol, or device or any combination of these
adopted and used by manufacturers or merchants to identify their goods and
distinguish them from those manufactured
or
sold by others. A service mark is a