Kristiansen Svein. Maritime Transportation: Safety Management and Risk Analysis

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presented in Table 15.11:

. Importance put on safety training

. Degree of job satisfaction

. Labour turnover (in percent)

. Workplace conditions

. Workplace risk, number of occupational accidents

. Status of the safety committee

. Status of safety officers

. Effect of safe conduct on promotion

. Effect of safe conduct on social status

Itoh and Boje Andersen (1999) studied the relation between accident rate and cultural

factors with relevance to the terms of safety for a Japanese company responsible for

railway track maintenance. They carried out a questionnaire-based survey that focused on

the train drivers, who have to operate under fairly stressful conditions. The company in

question consists of five different branches and, as Figure 15.13 shows, the workers’

morale and motivation , as well as attitudes on management, operating procedures and

organizational issues, differed markedly between the branches.

The safety culture factors shown in Figure 15.13 were then correlated with accident

frequencies for each branch of the company as shown in Figure 15.14. Accident frequency

was expressed by weighting the sum of big and small accidents, considering five

small accidents as equal to one big accident (i.e. the scale is 5 : 1). The upper graph in

Figure 15.14 shows accident frequency against the motivation score. The graph gives

a clear indication of a correlation between these factors. The branch with the lowest

measured motivation (i.e. branch B) had the highest accident rate. The lesson learned with

Ta b l e 1 5 .11 . Organizational indicators for safety culture

Indicator Comment

Organizational commitment The top management of the organization identify safety

as a core value and demonstrate an enduring positive

attitude towards improving safety even in times of

economic/fiscal austerity

Management involvement Management participation in day-to-day operations influences

the degree to which employees comply with operating rules

Employee empowerment Employees are given substantial power of influence and

responsibility in safety decisions

Reporting systems The willingness and ability of the organization to learn,

i.e. the degree of free and uninhibited reporting of

safety issues.

Reward systems The manner in which behaviour is evaluated and rewards

and penalties are doled out.

Source: Wiegmann et al. (2002).

496 CH APTER 15 SAFETY MANAGEM ENT

respect to the safety culture factor of morale is basically the same, as shown in the lower

diagram in Figure 15.14.

15.6 A FINAL COMMENT

This chapter has discussed the importance and role of safety management in achieving

high levels of safety. It has been shown how systematic management approaches such as

Total Quality Management (TQM) and the International Safety Management (ISM) Code

have brought the safety performance of maritime organizations forward. It should also be

kept in mind that important progress has been made throu gh a greater focus on education

and training. It is also essential to remember that in the end everything boils down to

Figure 15.13. Measurement of safety culture factors within branches of a railway track maintenance

company. (Source: Itoh and Boje Andersen,1999.)

1 5.6 A FINAL COMMENT 497

improvement of human performance in all parts of the companies and organizations.

However, despite the extensive focus put on education, and planning and drilling of safety-

critical operations, it should be remembered that humans have a natural tendency to resist

change both with respect to values and behaviour in day-to-day operations. Krause

et al. (1990) offer the following explanations for this tendency:

. Protection of habits

. Entails additional work

. Means facing the unknown

Figure 15.14. The correlation between accident frequency and motivation and morale, respectively,

for train drivers. (Source: Itoh and Boje Andersen,1999.)

498 CH APTER 15 SAFETY MANAGEM ENT

. Feeling of insecurity and anxiety

. Giving up what seems right

. Feeling that the way things are currently done is adequate

The authors also outline different strategies that are applied in order to resist the pressure

for change. These strategies are outlined in Table 15.12. The obvious conclusion from this

is that we have to show perseverance and consistency in our efforts to improve or maintain

an acceptable safety level.

Ta b l e 1 5 .1 2 . Strategies to resist change of behaviour

Strategy Example

Emotional Meet with anger, aggression

Cognitive Change subject. Failing to understand. Make you lose track of the issue.

Social ‘We’re buddies, why get down on me.’ Alter the nature of the relationship.

Behavioural Fighting: saying OK, but not really complying.

Psycho-physiological Being too tired. Getting sick.

1 5.6 A FINAL COMMENT 499

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REFERENCES 501

INDEX

accident

accident analysis, 363

accident database structure, 391

accident event, 398

Accident Frequency Rate, 86, 119

accident inducing factors, 347

accident investigation, 386

accident model, 257

accidents on the Norwegian coast, 146

accident phenomena, 22

accident prevention, 464

accident process, 40

accident rate, 28, 119

accident report structure, 390

accident scenario, 434

Accident Severity Rate, 121

accident situation, 346

accident system elements, 384

accident taxonomy, 379, 411

accident theory, 41

accident type, 20, 135

cost of accident, 346

impact accident, 135

large scale accidents, 38

maritime accidents, 11, 46

organizational accidents, 385

serious accident rate, 26, 28, 100

time scale of accident, 317

what is an accident, 367

activity level, 51

actors

cargo owner, 4

classification society, 4

Flag State, 4

Insurer, 4

management company, 4

port administration, 4

shipowner, 4

added mass, 181

AFR (see Accident Frequency Rate)

age effect, 46, 48

AIR (see Average Individual Risk)

Average Individual Risk, 34

ALARP, 210, 246

allision, 405

American Bureau of Shipping, 75

Amoco Cadiz, 426

analysis of variance, 105

AND gate, 228

ASR (see Accident Severity Rate)

auditing, 488

basic casual factors, 40, 370, 378

business climate, 413

CASMET, 398

cause

generic accident cause, 288

causal factor, 42, 145, 408, 412

basic causal factor, 40, 370, 378

causal groups, 43

immediate causal factor, 39, 370, 378, 383

casualty

casualty event, 398, 402, 410

casualty rate, 49

casualty representation, 400

casualty summary, 401

causation of incidents, 493

503

CBA (see Cost-Benefit Analysis)

CDF (see cumulative distribution function)

change of behaviour, 499

charter rates, 6

CHIRP (see Confidential Hazardous Incident

Reporting Program)

Circumstances, 39, 369

classification societies, 75

coefficient of determination, 104

collapsed material, 184, 190

collision, 147, 405

collision in Dover Strait, 164

collision in Japanese fairways, 163

collision in US ports, 162

collision risk study, 194

comparison of models, 161

crossing collision, 152

general model of collision, 156

head-on collision, 147

other collision angles, 160

overtaking collision, 150

Confidential Hazardous Incident Reporting

Program, 418

conflict of interest, 14

consequence

consequence classes, 226

consequence estimation, 106

consequence valuation, 268

contingency planning, 454

correlation, 47, 104

cost-benefit

cost-benefit analysis, 245, 259

cost-benefit analysis of oil spill prevention,

272

cost-benefit assessment, 297, 307

cost-benefit ratio, 271

cost of sea transport, 7, 277

crowd behaviour, 446

cumulative distribution function, 92

daily operations on-board, 408

damage

centre of damage, 173

damage length, 176, 191

structural damage, 199

transverse damage, 178

vertical extent of damage, 178

decision making, 323, 456

decision support, 436

deformation, 180

degrees-of-freedom, 127, 129

deficiency rate, 72, 73

Det norske Veritas, 75

detention rate, 48, 72, 77

Document of Compliance (DOC), 483

double bottom, 273

double hull, 273

double side, 273

Dover Strait, 164

economy, 6

emergency

emergency behaviour, 442

emergency situations, 439

emergency preparedness, 425, 433

pollution emergency, 454

employment conditions, 357

energy, 23

energy transfer, 181

environmental

environmental cost, 8, 9

environmental effect, 409

equipment failure, 408

ergonomics, 313

ETA (see Event Tree Analysis)

evacuation

evacuation frequency, 303

evacuation model, 304

evacuation process, 447

evacuation risk, 442, 444

evacuation simulation, 446

event

accidental event, 404, 406, 410

event tree, 335

Event Tree Analysis, 238, 242, 305

reconstruction of events, 371

extreme value estimation, 114

Exxon Valdez, 375

f-N diagram, 36

fact sheet, 401

failure data, 234

Failure Modes, Effect and Criticality Analysis,

222

504 INDEX

fairway, 137

false hypothesis, 324

FAR (see Fatal Accident Rate)

Fatal Accident Rate, 33

fatal accidents, 344

fatality

fatality frequency, 29

fatality rate, 342, 345

fatality risk, 28, 270, 454

probability of fatality, 303, 307

fault tree

Fault Tree Analysis, 195, 225

FCRI (see Fog and Collision Risk Index)

fire/explosion, 405

fire fighting system, 437

fitting data, 110

flag

flag effect, 47

Flags of Convenience, 67

Flag State Audit Project, 66

Flag State Conformance Index, 68

Flag State Control, 64

work conditions and flag, 355

flooding, 403

flowcharting, 371, 375, 428

FMECA (see Failure Modes, Effect and

Criticality Analysis)

FOC (see Flags of Convenience)

Fog and Collision Risk Index, 166

Formal Safety Assessment, 281, 301

FSA approach, 283

FSA data needs, 363

Frequency Severity Indicator, 122

FSA (see Formal Safety Assessment)

FSI (see Frequency Severity Indicator)

FTA (see Fault Tree Analysis)

Gauss distribution (see Normal

Distribution)

General Failure Types, 386

genotype, 396

GFT (see General Failure Types)

grounding, 137, 405

grounding damage, 189

grounding impact energy, 189

grounding in Japanese waters, 142

habit, 324

hazard, 21

Hazard and Operability Analysis, 217

hazard identification, 286, 302

hazardous material, 407

hazardous work conditions, 346

HAZOP (see Hazard and Operability Analysis)

Health, Safety and Environment, 471

Herald of Free Enterprise, 369

HSE (see Health, Safety and Environment)

Human

human behaviour, 438

human control model, 318

human error, 314, 318, 394, 397, 409

human factors, 313, 399

human factors interaction, 397

human factors analysis, 394

human information processing, 316

human performance, 318, 395

human reliability assessment, 331

hydrocarbons, 31

ICAF, 259, 300, 308

Iceberg theory, 417

ILCI (see International Loss Control Institute)

ILLC (see International Convention on Load

Lines)

IMO (see International Maritime Organisation)

immediate causal factor, 39, 370, 378, 383

impact, 173

impact accident, 135

impact diameter, 157

impact energy, 180, 199

impact velocity, 180

incident

incident analysis, 380

incident reporting, 414, 419

influence diagram, 292

information processing, 385

infrasound, 327

injury, 21

International Convention for Safety of Life at

Sea, 57, 430

International Convention for the Prevention of

Pollution from Ships, 60, 204

International Convention on

Load Lines, 59

INDEX 505