Hess Earl J. Field Armies and Fortifications in the Civil War: The Eastern Campaigns, 1861-1864
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388 Notes to Pages 310–14
238–42, 246–47, 249–51, 274, 277, 280, 285, 327–28, 341–42, 355–60, 385–87, 389,
391–92, 395, 406–10, 2:451–58, 465, 521, 525–27, 538–42, 546–47, 549–55, 560–65,
573, 603, 608, 611, 623, 625, 650, 681, 686, 713–14, 716, 718–22, 770, 779, 809, 817,
821, 831–32, 836, 843–49, 861, 869, 871–72, 874, 881, 891–93, 898, 900–912, 920–
22, 940–42; Haecker and Mauck, On the Prairie of Palo Alto, 22–23, 27–28, 50–51;
Justin H. Smith, War with Mexico, 1:158–60, 164–69, 170–78, 230–33, 238–54, 303,
306–13, 382, 385–97, 2:19–36, 42–59, 89–91, 102–3, 110–18, 140, 145, 147–56, 159,
161–63. There are no studies of the use of field fortifications in European history
other than some books that deal with trench warfare on the Western Front, but
information can be pieced together by looking at a number of campaign and war
studies of the various conflicts.
2. Hunt, ‘‘Entrenchments and Fortifications,’’ 194, 196; Johnson and Hartshorn,
‘‘Development of Field Fortification in the Civil War,’’ 570–71; Wagner, ‘‘Hasty In-
trenchments in the War of Secession,’’ 149.
3. Hagerman, ‘‘From Jomini to Dennis Hart Mahan,’’ 219.
4. For support of this conclusion, see Lowe, ‘‘Field Fortifications,’’ 72.
5. Wagner, ‘‘Hasty Intrenchments in the War of Secession,’’ 130–31.
6. Hagerman, ‘‘Tactical Thought of R. E. Lee,’’ 25–26; Hagerman, ‘‘From Jomini
to Dennis Hart Mahan,’’ 218; Lowe, ‘‘Field Fortifications,’’ 65–66; Griffith, Battle
Tactics of the Civil War, 73–90, 189; Hess, Union Soldier in Battle, 56–57, 65. Nos-
worthy agrees with Griffith that the rifle musket had far less impact on tactics than
has been assumed, but he fails to address how this conclusion relates to the use of
field fortifications. Nosworthy makes the unsupportable claim that continuous con-
tact between opposing field armies was the result rather than the cause of the use of
field fortifications. See Nosworthy, Bloody Crucible of Courage, 542–43, 577, 645–47.
Griffith contends that ‘‘fashion and book-learning’’ rather than ‘‘improved weap-
onry’’ led to the widespread use of field fortifications. This also is unsupportable by
the evidence. See Griffith, Battle Tactics of the Civil War, 189.
7. David Russell Wright has noted that variations in the design of fieldworks are
seen ‘‘in the simple breastworks that were ‘thrown up’ in a quick manner by the
soldiers, while the defense of important towns or positions reflect more of the
standard system of fortifications’’ (‘‘Civil War Field Fortifications,’’ 61).
8. Fagan, ‘‘Battle of Salem Church’’; Pfanz, Gettysburg—Culp’s Hill and Cemetery
Hill, 112–15; James R. Slack to Anne, May 28, 1863, Slack Papers, ID-ISL; Wilder,
‘‘Siege of Mumfordville,’’ 298.
9. Johnson and Hartshorn, ‘‘Development of Field Fortification in the Civil War,’’
572, 578; Wagner, ‘‘Hasty Intrenchments in the War of Secession,’’ 129–30; Hunt,
‘‘Entrenchments and Fortifications,’’ 194.
10. Hagerman, ‘‘From Jomini to Dennis Hart Mahan,’’ 213–16.
Notes to Pages 315–20 389
Appendix 1
1. Barnard, ‘‘Journal of the Siege,’’ OR 11(1):321; William F. Barry to Seth Wil-
liams, May 5, 1862, OR 11(1):341–42.
2. James F. Gibson photographs, May 1862, in Davis and Wiley, Photographic
History of the Civil War, 1:493–95.
3. Malles, Bridge Building in Wartime, 60–61; Stephen M. Weld to Hannah, May
1, 1862, in Weld, War Diary and Letters, 105; Nevins, Diary of Battle, 42; Sears, To the
Gates of Richmond, 85; James F. Gibson photograph, May 1862, in Davis and Wiley,
Photographic History of the Civil War, 1:494. See Bryan, Kelly, and Lankford, Images
from the Storm, 51, for a drawing of Battery No. 4.
4. Field visit to Dam No. 1, October 17–18, 1995; OR Atlas, pl. 19, no. 2. The
remnants of Union fieldworks opposite Dam No. 1 are around the interpretive
center and on the edge of a nearby golf course.
5. William F. Barry to Seth Williams, May 5, 1862, OR 11(1):343; John G. Barnard
to Joseph G. Totten, May 6, 1862, OR 11(1):319.
6. John G. Barnard to Joseph G. Totten, May 6, 1862, OR 11(1):319; Barnard,
‘‘Journal of the Siege,’’ OR 11(1):332–33.
7. John G. Barnard to Joseph G. Totten, May 6, 19862, OR 11(1):320.
8. Barnard, ‘‘Journal of the Siege,’’ OR 11(1):323, 327, 330; John G. Barnard to
Randolph B. Marcy, January 26, 1863, OR 11(1):127.
9. Henry J. Hunt to William F. Barry, April 27, 1862, OR 11(1):351–52; William F.
Barry to Seth Williams, May 5, 1862, OR 11(1):342.
10. Barnard, ‘‘Journal of the Siege,’’ OR 11(1):322, 325–27, 329–33, 335–36.
11. William F. Barry to Seth Williams, May 5, 1862, OR 11(1):348; Richard Dela-
field to John G. Barnard, April 22, 1862, in J. G. Barnard, Report of the Engineer
and Artillery Operations, 224–26. See Delafield, Report on the Art of War in Eu-
rope, fig. 38, for a superb illustration of the rope mantlets used by the Russians at
Sebastopol.
12. Barnard, ‘‘Journal of the Siege,’’ OR 11(1):333, 335–36; Henry J. Hunt to
William F. Barry, May 4, 1862, OR 11(1):352; April 21, 1862, White Diary, ALLM; map
of Union works at Yorktown, RG77, G106-1, NARA. For a detailed description of the
fourteen heavy batteries, see William F. Barry to Seth Williams, May 5, 1862, OR
11(1):339–41.
13. William F. Barry to Seth Williams, May 5, 1862, OR 11(1):339–41, 343; Alex-
ander Doull to Robert O. Tyler, n.d., OR 11(1):356–57.
14. John G. Barnard to Joseph G. Totten, May 6, 1862, OR 11(1):317–18; Early,
War Memoirs, 65–66. I have seen few of the Union remnants at Yorktown, but David
W. Lowe has informed me of their existence. Batteries No. 3, 6, 7, 8, 9, and 11 and
about half of No. 5 are intact. Battery No. 4 is apparently on the grounds of a coast
390 Notes to Pages 321–27
guard base and not easily accessible. Redoubts A, B, and D are intact, the latter only
half-finished, while Redoubt C is gone except for a section of a covered way leading
to the site. Quite a few military roads and infantry parapets are preserved as well.
The connecting line that goes westward from Redoubt A toward Batteries 7 and 8 is
still there, and the line that goes northeast to Battery 5 is also intact.
15. John G. Barnard to Joseph G. Totten, May 6, 1862, OR 11(1):316; OR Atlas, pl.
15, no. 1; Palfrey, ‘‘Siege of Yorktown,’’ 108–9; Runge, Four Years in the Confederate
Artillery, 13; Francis Adams Donaldson to Jacob, May 8, 1862, in Acken, Inside the
Army of the Potomac, 74; George N. Barnard photographs, June 1862, in Davis and
Wiley, Photographic History of the Civil War, 1:487; ‘‘Civil War fortifications that
were thrown up during the Siege of 1862 and cover those built by the British in
1781,’’ 1939 World’s Fair Photograph Collection, LOV; Bailey, Forward to Richmond,
98–99; field visit to Yorktown, October 13, 1994. See Bryan, Kelly, and Lankford,
Images from the Storm, 52, for a good drawing of the main entrance of the Confeder-
ate defenses at Yorktown. The National Park Service at the Yorktown Victory Center
understandably preserves and interprets the Revolutionary War history of the site
as its primary mission. Yet the extensive Confederate destruction and reworking of
the original remnants of Cornwallis’s earthworks around Yorktown transformed
the place into a Civil War site. One can assume that most of the remnants are of
Rebel rather than Royal works and were even reworked by the Civilian Conserva-
tion Corps in the 1930s.
16. Palfrey, ‘‘Siege of Yorktown,’’ 110; Cyrus B. Comstock to John G. Barnard,
May 5, 1862, OR 11(1):338; field visit to Gloucester Point, October 16, 1995. The
water battery is long gone, but fragments of the huge fort to its rear remain and are
easily accessible. Although only a small part of this fort, the remnants are well
preserved.
17. John G. Barnard to Joseph G. Totten, May 6, 1862, OR 11(1):316–17; OR Atlas,
pl. 15, no. 3; Palfrey, ‘‘Siege of Yorktown,’’ 109–10; Early, War Memoirs, 60–61.
18. OR Atlas, pl. 19, no. 2; ‘‘Map of Yorktown and Vicinity,’’ YB; Bailey, Forward to
Richmond, 92, has an interesting field sketch by a Harper’s Weekly artist of a Confed-
erate gun position at Wynn’s Mill; field visit to Wynn’s Mill, October 17–18, 1995.
The remnants here are superb, well protected, and easily accessible.
19. Andrews, Footprints of a Regiment, 32; G. H. Houghton photographs, 1862, in
Davis and Wiley, Photographic History of the Civil War, 2:1016–17; field visit to Dam
No. 1, October 17–18, 1995. The works at Dam No. 1 are well preserved and easily
accessible. Walk along White Oak Trail to the left, toward Wynn’s Mill, to see what
remains of the connecting works between those two points, and drive to the camp-
ground to the right of Dam No. 1 to see remnants of the connecting works be-
tween Garrow’s Point and Lee’s Mill. The works that traverse the campgrounds are
Notes to Pages 329–39 391
sadly deteriorated, but those that are hidden in the surrounding brush are well
preserved.
20. OR Atlas, pl. 19, no. 5; field visit to Lee’s Mill and Skiff ’s Creek Redoubt, Octo-
ber 18, 1995. The works at both places are well preserved. I did not see Fort Crafford
on Mulberry Island but was told it is well preserved. Access to the fort is restricted by
its location on the compound of Fort Eustis, an active military installation.
21. Cyrus B. Comstock to John G. Barnard, April 12, May 4, 14, 1862, in J. G.
Barnard, Report of the Engineer and Artillery Operations, 196–97, 201, 203; Henry L.
Abbott to mother, April 20, 1862, in Scott, Fallen Leaves, 110–11.
22. Alfred L. Rives to Josiah Gorgas, April 14, 1862, M628, RG109, NARA.
Appendix 2
1. Frassanito, Early Photography at Gettysburg, 142–46, 200, 255–57; Michael
Jacobs quoted in ibid., 203; Trowbridge, Desolate South, 7; David Wills quoted in
Frassanito, Early Photography at Gettysburg, 144; ‘‘Report on Field Defenses on the
Battlefield of Gettysburg,’’ 24–27, 31–32, GNMP; R. Bruce Ricketts to Winfield S.
Hancock, December 28, 1885, in Ladd and Ladd, Bachelder Papers, 2:1172.
Glossary
1. There are a number of glossaries in other books about fortifications. I would
recommend Cooling and Owen, Mr. Lincoln’s Forts, 239, and David Russell Wright,
‘‘Civil War Field Fortifications,’’ 323–34. Wright also has a very good description of
parts of an earthwork on pp. 17–20. One also can find a great deal of information
about these matters on the Internet.
2. Stewart, Camp, March and Battlefield, 394–95. See also Stephen Minot Weld
to Hannah, July 8, 1864, in Weld, War Diary and Letters, 335, for a similar comment
on the common misuse of the term ‘‘rifle pits.’’
3. David Russell Wright, ‘‘Civil War Field Fortifications,’’ 3, uses these terms
differently.
4. Anderson, Crucible of War, 242. Anderson speculates that the term ‘‘abatis’’
not only derives from the French for ‘‘felled trees’’ but refers to abattoir, or slaugh-
terhouse.
5. David Russell Wright, ‘‘Civil War Field Fortifications,’’ 327.
6. Mahan, Treatise on Field Fortification, 12.
7. Schneck, ‘‘Origins of Military Mines,’’ 52.
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