Hatano Y., Katsumura Y., Mozumder A. (Eds.) Charged Particle and Photon Interactions with Matter - Recent Advances, Applications, and Interfaces

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910 Charged Particle and Photon Interactions with Matter

via the proportional scintillation, S2, in the gas phase for particle discrimination. The S1 signal also

gives time zero for the detector. The side wall is made of polytetrauoroethylene (PTFE), which has

a high reectivity for vuv light. The electrons produced by ionizing particles drift upward through

the grid. A grid is placed just above the liquid surface to pick electrons from the liquid to the gas

phase (Schmidt, 1997). The gas phase is a multiwire proportional scintillation counter where the

electrons are accelerated by a high electric eld to produce scintillation photons, S2. The photons

are

detected mainly by the PMT arrays above.

XENON10

(Angle etal., 2008a,b), the leading detector for the WIMP searches at LNGS, is

shown in Figure 31.28. The particle discrimination capability of the dual-phase method has been

demonstrated

by XENON10, as shown in Figure 31.29.

The

XENON100 uses 170kg of LXe, which has a drift length of 30 cm viewed by 178 PMTs of

1in. from the top and the bottom. Sixty-four veto PMTs view the outer layer of the several-cm-thick

active LXe shield, which has a ducial mass of 70kg. The LXe detector is surrounded by polyeth-

ylene and lead, which act as a passive shield to reduce neutrons and γ’s. The upgraded XENON100

version and XENON1T use the new QUPID, quartz photon-intensifying detectors (Fukasawa et al.,

2010). The QUPID has a photocathode inside a semisphere quartz, where a high voltage of about

−10kV is applied. The photoelectrons are focused onto the APD at the center, which is set to the

ground level. The QUPID is position sensitive and shows a fast response with clear single-photon

separation.

Cathode

Emergency

LN2

Anode

Cathode

mesh

Chamber

vessel

Anode HV

Vacuum cryostat

HV racetrack

Bottom

PMTs

4 1

Xe liquid level

Bell

HV racetrack

Top PMT HV+signal

PTR

LN2

Cooling

P M T

4 8 P M T

Figure 31.28 Schematic view of XENON10 detectors. (Courtesy of XENON.)

Applications of Rare Gas Liquids to Radiation Detectors 911

ZEPLIN III (Akimov, 2009) and LUX use basically the same principle of operation as XMASS

II or XENON. ZEPLIN III uses a high-purity Cu container to reduce the background from the

container and is set at the U.K. Boulby mine. The target LXe has the shape of a pancake, 38cm in

diameter and 3.5cm thick. A thin layer of LXe makes it possible to apply a high eld to gain a large

separation between γ’s and nuclear recoils. LUX is to be constructed in the Homestake mine, United

States, and is a 300kg dual-phase LXe detector having a ducial mass of 100kg; a mass of 200kg

used for self-shielding to reduce the large background contribution from PMTs.

31.5 appliCations in mediCal imaging (pet)

PET is an imaging technique extensively applied in the eld of medicine. γ rays emitted by

the annihilation of positrons from emitters dispersed throughout the body are measured and,

subsequently, the pattern of positron distribution is reconstructed. Usually, PET systems are

constructed from many crystal scintillators surrounding the body to be imaged. Pairs of γ rays

emitted at almost 180° from the positron annihilation point are detected by a pair of detectors

that are placed on both sides of the annihilation point. If a photon pair is detected simultane-

ously in both detectors, the positron interaction point exists somewhere on the line between the

two detectors (except scatter and random events).

31.5.1 liQuid xenon coMpton pet

High detection efciency and high counting rate capability are essentially required for a PET detector

to suppress the radiation dose for a patient. Additional requirements are good energy, position, and

time resolutions to discriminate photons scattered in a patient and to reduce false coincidences. A LXe

TPC with a scintillation trigger is suitable for this purpose. It is desirable to have 3D position informa-

tion on the interaction event instead of the two-dimensional one, which is traditionally provided. This

additional feature is fundamental for solving the parallax error, which occurs if the positron annihila-

tion point is out of the detector (ring) center and causes a deterioration of the position resolution.

The rst experiments used a prototype detector shown in Figure 31.30 (Chepel etal., 1995, 1997;

Lopes and Chepel, 2003). The proposed design of the LXe PET ring is composed of about 200 multi-

wire cells disposed, as shown in Figure 31.30a. The detector is a LXe multiwire detector consisting of

WIMP

Gamma

Drift time

0.4

0.2

–0.2

–0.4

–0.6

–0.8

–1

0 5

(b)(a)

10 15 20

Nuclear recoil equivalent energy (keV)

25 30 35 40 45

ΔLog

(S2/S1)

S1 S2

Figure 31.29 A dual-phase LXe detector’s ability to distinguish a recoil nucleus WIMP signal from the

γ background. (a) The S1/S2 ratio is used to separate the WIMP signal from the γ background. (b) Results

from WIMP search in XENON10 (Angle etal., 2008a,b). The WIMP signal region is dened between the two

vertical lines (4.5–27keV) and two zigzag lines. The 10 events are in the dened area; however, all are likely

leakage

events. (From Angle, J. et al., Phys. Rev. Lett., 100, 021303, 2008a. With permission.)

912 Charged Particle and Photon Interactions with Matter

six ionization cells, each formed by two parallel cathode plates with a multiwire anode in the middle.

Negative voltage is applied to the cathode, with the anode wires (50μm diameter, 2.5mm spacing) at

ground. The 20 anode wires were connected in pairs to reduce the number of readout channels (see

Figure 31.30b). The signal from each charge channel was fed to a low-noise charge-sensitive preampli-

er followed by a linear amplier, connected to a leading edge discriminator and a peak-sensing analog

to digital converter (ADC). A typical noise level of 800 electrons FWHM was achieved for the charge

readout. Two PMTs are xed above the cells and partly (at least the photon entrance window) immersed

in the LXe to improve light collection. The signals from the PMTs are used to select coincidences with

a resolution of about 1ns (FWHM) and provide a fast trigger for acquiring the signals from the anodes.

The x-axis of the interaction point is determined with a precision better than 1mm (FWHM) by mea-

suring the electron drift time, triggered by the light signal. The identication of the pair of wires on

which the charge is collected gives the depth of the interaction (z-direction), with a resolution estimated

at 5mm (twice the wire spacing). For the measurement of the y-direction, at rst, the ratio of the ampli-

tudes of the two PMTs was used but the position resolution was only ∼10mm (1σ). To improve this

resolution, the use of a 2D mini-strip plate was tested with 122keV γ rays and an improved position

resolution of better than 2mm (FWHM) was demonstrated (Solovov etal., 2002a,b, 2003).

While single-point position resolution is an important parameter of a LXe detector for PET, the

double-point resolution, that is, the minimum distance required between two sources still to be sepa-

rated in the image, is desirable. As discussed by Giboni etal. (2007), this double-point resolution

depends not only on position resolution, but also on the statistics of events from the sources, as well

as on the background from unrelated events. In an image, these factors determine the contrast besides

the background from wrong Compton sequencing. There is a very strong background from genuine

positron annihilation events with at least one γ ray Compton scattering even before leaving the patient

(Figure 31.31). Most of these scatterings are forward-peaked, with a small angle to the original direc-

tion, and with only a small change in γ ray energy. To identify and reject this background as far as

possible, energy resolution is by far the most important factor. The LXe TPC, proposed as Compton

PET, relies on the improved energy resolution that results from the demonstrated sum of the anti-

correlated ionization and scintillation signals (Aprile etal., 2007). The estimated FWHM energy

PMT

CDF

Cathodes

Anode wires

(a) (b)

γ ray

Trigger

E, x, z, (y)

0 1 2 --- --- 8 9

Charge signal processing

Timing signal from

the opposite side of

the tomograph ring

Coincidence

unit

Figure 31.30 (a) Design of the positron tomograph ring based on multiwire cells. (b) Multiwire ionization

cell,

a basic element of the LXe PET detector (Lopes and Chepel, 2003). (Courtesy of LIP Coimbra.)

Applications of Rare Gas Liquids to Radiation Detectors 913

resolution of 4% is much better than crystal scintillators, for example, GSO (Gd

SiO

) is 15% and

BGO (Bi

) is 25%.

Compton kinematics not only determines the sequence of interaction points, but also constrains

the direction of the incoming photon to the surface of a cone. The opening angle of the cone is the

Compton scattering angle in the rst interaction point. If the incoming directions are thus determined

for both annihilation γ rays, even if one of the γ rays scatters inside the body of a patient, it is still pos-

sible to determine the original line on which the annihilation γrays were emitted (Figure 31.32). The

number of events with one of the γ rays scattering once in the body amounts to about twice the num-

ber of nonscattered events. Therefore, with Compton reconstruction, the number of acceptable events

is nearly a factor 3 larger than the number of good events in a standard PET detector (Giboni etal.,

2007). This increased detection efciency results in a reduction of the radiation dose for the patient.

Detector ring

Outline of object

Reconstruction

error

Scatter

angle

γ 1

γ 2

Scatter point

Positron

annihilation

Figure 31.31 Measurement geometry in a PET detector ring. One γ ray (γ 2) scatters within the body, lead-

ing to the indicated reconstruction error. (From Giboni, K. etal., Compston positron emission tomography

with

a liquid xenon time projection chamber, JINST2:P10001. With permission.)

First scatter

Second

scatter

Second scatter

Photoabsorption

Single detector Double-scatter

telescope

Incoming γ

Figure 31.32 Principle of operation of a double-scatter telescope. (From Giboni, K. etal., Compston posi-

tion

emission tomography with a liquid xenon time projection chamber, JINST2:P10001. With permission.).

914 Charged Particle and Photon Interactions with Matter

31.5.2 liQuid xenon tof-pet

The time-of-ight (TOF) system can measure the difference between the arrival times from two

annihilation

points using the following equation:

c T T

× −

( )

1 2

(31.22)

where

is the position annihilation point

and T

are the arrival times of γ rays

is the light velocity

The

accuracy of the determination of the annihilation position is determined by the time resolution

of the detectors. For example, to achieve a position resolution of 1.5cm, a time resolution of 100ps

(FWHM) is required. However, the present time resolutions of actual detectors are over 350ps, corre-

sponding to a position resolution of more than 5cm. Therefore, the TOF information does not improve

the position resolution, but can be used to improve the signal-to-noise ratio in the reconstructed image.

LXe as a scintillator is one of the candidates for TOF-PET because of its fast response and high

photon yield. A prototype, consisting of two LXe chambers, was constructed to study the feasibility.

Each chamber has a LXe sensitive volume of 120 × 60 × 60mm

viewed by 32 square PMTs of

1in. (Hamamatsu R5900-06AL12S-ASSY), with one side left uncovered as an entrance window

for γ rays (Figure 31.33a, Nishikido etal., 2004). A schematic of the whole setup is shown in Figure

31.33b. The distance between the entrance planes is 70cm. A test on the prototype was carried

(a)

(b)

Liq. Xe

PMT

500 mm

22Na

250 mm

Liq. Xe

Vacuum

Figure 31.33 Schematic of the TOF-PET prototype. (a) Arrangement of 32 PMTs in LXe. (b) Cross-

sectional

view. (From Nishikido, F. etal., Jpn. J. Appl. Phys., 43, 779, 2004. With permission.)

Applications of Rare Gas Liquids to Radiation Detectors 915

out with a

Na source placed in the center of the setup. The output signals from the PMTs of each

chamber were recorded by charge-sensitive analog-to-digital converters, and the TOF information

was recorded with time-to-digital converters. The conversion point of a γ ray was determined by

calculating the center of gravity of the light output from the individual PMTs after applying a non-

uniformity

correction with the alpha source.

N N

X N

Y N

Z N

j j





































∑

(31.23)

where

is the total number of photoelectrons

is the number of photoelectrons of the individual PMTs

, Y

, and Z

are the positions of the individual PMTs

The projection on the X-Y, X-Z, and Y-Z planes of distributions of conversion points from annihila-

tion

γ rays inside the effective volume are shown in Figure 31.34.

–10

–20

–30

–60 –40 –20 0 20 40 60

Position (mm)

–60 –40 –20 0 20 40 60

Position (mm)

–10

–20

–30

Position (mm)

X-Y X-Z

–30 –20 –10 0 10 20 30

Position (mm)

180

160

140

120

100

–10

–20

–30

Position (mm)

Y-Z

Figure 31.34 Positiondistributionsof conversion points for annihilation γrays in X-Y,X-Z, and Y-Z planesinside

the sensitive area. (From Doke, T. etal., Nucl. Instrum. Methods Phys. Res. A., 569, 863, 2006. With permission.)

916 Charged Particle and Photon Interactions with Matter

The energy resolution obtained from the sum of 32 PMTs was 26.0% (FWHM) (Doke etal.,

2006). The resolution of the time-difference spectrum between the two detectors was 514 ps

(FWHM) for annihilation γ rays. For a central volume of 5 × 5 × 5 mm

, a better time resolution of

253ps was obtained. It is expected that the time resolution improvement be inversely proportional to

, that is, the timing improves by an increase in the quantum efciency of the PMT or the light

collection efciency of detectors. This is within reach, based on available PMTs with signicantly

better quantum efciency, compared to the PMTs used in the prototype experiment. The number of

background events effectively reduces with a time resolution of 300 ps. A full-scale TOF-PET, with

axial sensitive length of 24

cm,

has been proposed by Nishikido etal. (2005) (see Figure 31.35).

Another

LXe PET was proposed by Gallin-Martel etal. (2009), applying a light division method

to measure the position in the axial direction. However, the reported position resolution was only

about 10mm (FWHM) in the central region, not competitive with what is achieved in commercially

available crystal PET. Simulation results show much better performance, but the large discrepancy

not understood or explained yet.

Clearly,

more studies are required to establish LXe Compton/TOF detectors as an alternative to clas-

sical crystal PET systems. LXe-based detectors require associated systems (from cryogenics to gas han-

dling and purication), which are typically perceived as complex and costly, leading to some reluctance

in their use, especially as diagnostic tools in medicine. In the last few years, however, many signicant

technological advances have resulted in large LXe detector systems operating for many months with

excellent and stable performance. In particular, the LXe detectors deployed underground for dark matter

searches have proven that long-term stability, reliability, and also safety issues can be condently solved.

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