Fleet K. The Cambridge History of Turkey: Volume 1, Byzantium to Turkey, 1071-1453

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ahmet yas¸ar ocak

Prose

From the names which appear in the sources and from what has survived, we

can say that the works produced in prose in Turkish in the twelfth to ﬁfteenth

centuries were nearly all treatises and books written on scientiﬁc subjects.

These were generally either compositions in Persian or Arabic or translated

from Arabic to Persian. Almost all of the writers, as noted above, were ulema

who came into Anatolia from outside. According to Ates¸, the majority of

works written in Anatolia in the period to the reign of Alaeddin Keykubad I

were books and treatises relating to philosophy and natural sciences, fewer

works being written on religion and Suﬁsm.

155

For example, the Pertevname

of the famous Iranian Suﬁ philosopher Shihab al-din al-Suhrawardi (d. 1196),

who was also known as Suhrawardi-i Maqtul in order to distinguish him from

the famous Suﬁ from Baghdad Shihab al-din Abu Hafs al Suhrawardi, was one

of the ﬁrst works of philosophy. His other works include an augury book,

Usul al-Malahim, which Ebu el-Fazl H

useyin b.

Ibrahim el-Tiﬂisi translated

from Arabic into Persian, a book on the interpretation of dreams entitled

Kamil al-Ta‘bir and a work entitled Bayan al-Nujum on astronomy. He wrote

two books on medicine, Sihhat al-Abdan and Kifayat al-Tibb, the latter written

for the vali of Sivas Kutbeddin Meliks¸ah, one of the sons of Kılıc¸ Arslan II.

Of his many works written in Persian and Arabic the most important are

Hikmat al-Ishraq and al-Talwihat, which are the main works on the ishraqi

mystic philosophy which he himself established, and Hayakil al-Nur,avery

well known little Suﬁ treatise. We know also that he wrote other works in

Anatolia.

Another prose work written in this period is Ravdat al-Manazir, composed

in Persian by Kemaleddin Ebubekr on Islamic theology. The Rahat al-Sudur

wa Ayat al-Surur of al-Ravandi, completed in 1206 and dedicated to Gıyaseddin

Keyh

usrev I, an important prose work of history and a major source also for

Iranian Seljuk history, can be counted among the best examples of Persian

prose.

With the gradual strengthening of the Suﬁ movement in Anatolia from

the thirteenth century, there is no doubt that prose compositions were writ-

ten in this environment, as were translations from Arabic to Persian, and

the number of religio-Suﬁ texts written in Arabic and Turkish increased.

For example, among the main examples of Suﬁ prose were the very well

known Kitab al-Ma‘arif of Mevlana’s father, Bahaeddin Veled, the book of

the same title by his halife, Seyyid Burhaneddin Muhakkık-i Tirmizi, Maqalat

155 Ates¸, ‘Hicr

ı VI–VIII. (XII–XIV.) Asırlarda Anadolu’da Farsc¸a Eserler’, 133–4.

420

Social, cultural and intellectual life, 1071–1453

which was a collection of the sayings of S¸ems-i Tebrizi gathered together

from different places, the Majalis-i Sab‘a of Mevlana, another book entitled

Ma‘arif by his son Sultan Veled, Mirsad al-‘Ibad of Necmeddin-i Daye, and

Siraj al-Qulub.

We must also note in particular the Manahij al-‘Ibad ila al-Ma‘ad which was

written on the vahdet-i v

ucud doctrine of his master by Sadeddin el-Fergani

who was a follower of Muhieddin

Ibn Arabi, and Fergani’s commentary on

the famous Qaside-i Ta’iyya of the well-known Egyptian follower of the same

doctrine, ‘Amr ibn al-Farid. Books such as Fahreddin-i Iraki’s Lema‘at and

Sadreddin Konevı’s Tabsirat al-Mubtedi wa Tadhkirat al-Muntahi, as well as

the latter’s Nusus and F

ukuk (ﬁrst written as an explanation of the views of

Ibn Arabi’s Fusas al-Hiqam), Risalat al-Vujud and Miftah al-Gayb, must also be

mentioned, as must the Fihi ma ﬁhi of Mevlana himself, the Persian menakib-

name of Sipehsalar Ferudun b. Ahmed entitled Manaqib-i Hadrat-i Khudavandi-

gar and known by the short title Risale-i Sipehsalar which is an important

source for the life of the family of Mevlana and his circle, and of course the

very well known Manakib al-Ariﬁn of Ahmed Eﬂaki written later on the same

subject.

There are various examples in the ﬁeld of belles-lettres, such as the Raw-

dat al-Kuttab wa Hadiqat al-Albab of Ebubekr ibn el-Zeki mentioned earlier

which includes texts in Arabic and Persian: the Gunyat al-Katib wa Munyat

al-Talib of Hasan b. ‘Abd el-M

u’min; and the Mektubat of Mevlana which con-

tained letters written for various reasons to different high ofﬁcials of the Seljuk

state.

Among the works in the style of Siyasetnames (books of diplomacy) which

immediately come to mind from the thirteenth century are the Persian Fus-

tat al-‘Adala ﬁ Qawa‘id al-Saltana of Mahmud ibn el-Hatib and Kitab al-Lata’if

al-’Ala’iyya which Ahmed b. Sa’d el-Erzincani wrote in Arabic for Alaeddin

Keykubad I.

In the beylik period very many prose works were written on a variety of

subjects. Among these are Lata’if al-Hikma and Metali‘ al-Anwar of Mahmud

b. Ebibekr el-Urmevi, and Daqayiq al-Haqayiq of Nasireddin el-Sicistani on the

occult. In the ﬁeld of history the most signiﬁcant works include Ibn Bibi’s very

important source al-’Awamir al-’Ala’iyya, Musamarat al-Akhbar of Karim al-Din

Aqsara’i and Aziz b. Ardashir-i Astarabadi’s Bazm

o Razm.

156

156 For more detailed information on prose in Anatolia in the Seljuk and beylik periods

see M.

Isen, ‘Nesir’, in Anadolu Selc¸ukluları ve Beylikler D

onemi Uygarlı

gı I, ed. Ocak,

pp. 521–32.

421

ahmet yas¸ar ocak

Conclusion

To sum up the picture of Turkish intellectual life in the twelfth to ﬁfteenth

centuries, of which we have tried to give an outline here, we can say that

those who came from outside and settled in Turkey in this period, primarily

the Turks who gave their name to the region, transformed the lands which

had been the cradle of various civilisations over the ages, into a country with

a very different society, belief and culture from that which it had had until

that point. Over a period of approximately two and a half centuries, ulema,

Suﬁs, bureaucrats, poets, men of letters, philosophers, men from every pro-

fession and of every type, coming into the region from outside, all Muslims

but speaking different languages, tied to different interpretations of Islam, all

contributed to the creation and development of every blade of the Anatolian

cultural fan, from a new political mentality to a new architecture. Great sul-

tans like Kılıc¸ Arslan II and Alaeddin Keykubad I, great vezirs like Sahip Ata

Fahreddin, Celaleddin Karatay and Pervane Muineddin S

uleyman, great Suﬁs

like Mevlana, As¸ık Pas¸a, Yunus Emre and Hacı Bektas¸, and great poets and

men of letters like Kani’i, Dehhani, Ahmedi and S¸eyhi and many others were

the products of this rich and proliﬁc political and intellectual culture created

from a synthesis of elements drawn from Central Asia and from every part

of the Muslim Middle East. This synthesis produced the most developed lan-

guage of learning, art and literature of the western Turkish world, creating

a version of Anatolian Turkish. This language opened the way to the mag-

niﬁcent political style of Ottoman diplomacy. In short, the intellectual world

of medieval Turkey created the basis of the intellectual performance of the

Ottoman Empire for the centuries to come.

422

Glossary

ga lord; commander

ahi member of asemi-religious orderof thelate Seljuk and earlyOttoman periodrecruited

mainly from among the ranks of craftsmen devoted to the ideals of f

uvvet; ahilik was an

association which united craftsmen in the Anatolian towns and had a semi-Suﬁ identity

akc¸e Greek aspron, Latin asper, silver coin used by the Turkish rulers

akın raid

akıncı raider; a corps of light cavalry used for raiding

akritai Byzantine frontier troops

alp hero, brave man

alp-eren hero, brave men

arasta covered market associated with a mosque

archon high-ranking Byzantine ofﬁcial

asitane dervish lodge

askeri belonging to the military; those who belonged to the military or religious elite and

who were granted tax exemption

asper see akc¸e

aspron see akc¸e

avarız-i divaniye extraordinary levies

azeb (Arabic azab) unmarried young men; seamen or pirates; in Ottoman army appar-

ently land foot soldiers who were enlisted from the peasants for the duration of a

campaign

baba elder of a dervish group; head of a Bektas¸i lodge

bac tax, toll or market dues

bailo head of a Venetian colony; Venetian representative abroad; Venetian ambassador to

Constantinople

balish Mongol tax or tribute

basqaq a Mongol military governor

bas¸tina hereditary estatein the Balkans,a Slavic termtaken over bythe Ottomans denoting

hereditary title to land

batman measure of weight

battimano see batman

bedestan covered market, part of a bazaar where valuable merchandise was stored

besant term used by Europeans for the gold dinar, and for other units of account derived

from the dinar

423

Glossary

bey ruler of a Turkish state; commander

beylerbeyi top Ottoman ofﬁcial in provincial government, head of a beylerbeyilik

botte a wine measurement varying from place to place

braccia a cloth measurement, an arm’s length, exact length varied from place to place

buk Suﬁ lodge, foundation

buta a wine measurement

buta de Napoli a wine measurement

calbano steelyard balance, see also stadera

camlet a type of cloth made, possibly, from camel’s fur, and from mohair

canna a cloth measurement

capsa a container for soap

casa see capsa

cebeci armourer

cebel

u armed retainer

c¸elebi title of respect; leader of a religious order, particularly of the Mevlevis

cerehor irregular enlisted warriors

c¸eribas¸ı a military commander; commander of detachment of sipahis in the provinces

chanela a measurement of approximately 10 to 12 palms

c¸ift resmi tax paid for one c¸ift of land

c¸iftlik landholding which could be worked by a pair of oxen

cihad (jihad) Islamic holy war

cizye poll-tax paid by non-Muslims

comerchium customs tax

danis¸mend an advanced student in a medrese

dar

ulhadis school where the traditions of Islam are taught

dede head of a dervish community, in particular the head of the Bektas¸i order

defter-i icmal a summary register of revenue

defter-i mufassal a detailed register of revenue

dergah a dervish lodge

devs¸irme a levy of Christian boys for service in the Ottoman army or in the palace

dinar Arab coin, called besant by Europeans, divided into 24 karati

dirhem Arab silver coin

dizdar fortress captain

ducat Venetian gold coin

dux governor

ehl-i hiref ar

tists or artisans in palace service

emin agent, superintendent

emir ruler, lord

emir-dad chief of justice

es¸kinci (or es¸k

unci) irregular cavalryman

evkaf defteri vakıf register

fardello a bundle, particularly used for silk

fıkıh (Arabic ﬁqh) Islamic canonical jurisprudence

fusta large galiot, small oared warship

uvvet (Arabic futuwwa) a semi-religious movement; the ethics of such a movement

gaza a raid for plunder, later came to mean holy war fought for Islam

424

Glossary

gazi ﬁghter in gaza

gigliato a silver coin common in the eastern Mediterranean in the fourteenth century

gulam-i mir salaried court troops

hacegan departmental head in the bureaucracy

hadith prophetic tradition; sayings and practices of the Prophet Muhammad

halife caliph, successor, ofﬁcially ordained assistant to a s¸eyh

Halvetiye order of dervishes

hamam public bath

han caravansary, large commercial building; a market building in a town, usually special-

ising in the trade of a speciﬁc commodity, or a place used by merchants from a speciﬁc

region or country

hane a household as a tax unit

hanekah dervish lodge

harac¸ poll-tax paid by non-Muslims

has crown lands

hatib the leader of the community at Friday prayers

hisar eri fortress guard

hutbe the sermon delivered in the mosque by the hatib

hyperpyron Byzantine gold coin, divided into 24 karati, it declined in signiﬁcance during

the fourteenth century, becoming a money of account; after the middle of the fourteenth

century the hyperpyron in circulation was silver

ikta a grant of revenue from land made to a military or administrative ofﬁce-holder

ilchi Mongol envoy

imam prayer leader

imaret soup kitchen; religious and social complex supported by a vakıf

inj

u the domain of the Ilkhanate state

ispence originally a poll-tax paid in the Balkans, taken over by the Ottomans as a customary

tax

istimalet persuasion; Ottoman policy of accommodating the population in newly con-

quered territory

kadı judge, chief administrator of a judicial district

kadı sicilleri court registers

kadırga oared galleys with single masts and lateen sails

kalyata large galiot

kantar a measurement of weight

kapan balance used for heavy goods such as foodstuffs

kapudan naval commander

kapukulu ocakları the salaried troops of the palace

karati division of a hyperpyron; there were 24 karati to one hyperpyron

kaza district under the jurisdiction of a kadı

keth

uda Ottoman government ofﬁcial, agent

kıble the direction of Mecca for praying

komerkion customs tax

os¸k pa

vilion

ulliye religious and social complex

unbed tomb

425

Glossary

lala the person who had been tutor to the reigning sultan as a child

mahalle district, quarter, neighbourhood

mal-i buzurg central treasury

mal-i yam courier service

mangır a copper coin

mazo a bundle

medrese school, Muslim theological college

mekteb school

menakıbname narrative of heroic deeds

mescid small mosque

mevlevihane a lodge for Mevlevi dervishes

mezhep religious denomination; school of thought

mihrab niche in a mosque indicating the direction of Mecca

minber pulpit in a mosque

mine common weight and dry measure

miri belonging to the ruler or the state

mizan balance used for cloth and other commodities which were not very weighty

modio see modius

modius a dry measure, varying widely according to location

moggio see modius

mudd a dry measure, varying according to location, used for grain

uderris teacher in a medrese

uft

u or m

ufti jurisconsult

muhasebe defteri account register

muhtesib market inspector

mukataa tax farm; a source of revenue

ulk freehold ownership

urid Suﬁ disciple

usellem member of a corps of militia performing military service in return for tax

exemption

mustahfız fortress guard

mustauﬁ revenue accountant

ustevi head of the fınancial department

nahiye administrative region, district

naib deputy, representative

naib

us-saltana (na’ib al-saltana) sultan’s deputy

nazır superintendent, particularly of a vakıf

noyan a Mongol commander

ufus defteri population

ocak infantry corps

ordu Mongol court

orta military unit

pani cloth

paroikos dependent peasant, who received land to cultivate, though also having the right

to own land

patumani see batman

426

Glossary

piyade infantry

podest

a the top government ofﬁcial in Genoese colonies

pronoia care, forethought; in ﬁscal terms a grant of land which at times involved military

service

protostrator one of the highest ofﬁcials in the retinue of the emperor

qubchur Mongol tax on ﬂocks and herds; poll-tax

quriltay assembly

reaya tax-paying population who were not members of the askeri elite

ribat military station on a frontier, fortiﬁed post, lodge for dervishes

rotol a division of weight, division of a kantar

usum dues, taxes

usum-i urﬁyye customary dues

salname yearbook

sancak sub-province

sancakbeyi governor of a sub-province

sanduka sarcophagus, cenotaph

scarlattini ﬁne woollen cloth, usually, though not always, scarlet coloured

sekban military unit

sema the whirling dance and the music performed during a Mevlevi ceremony

senseraggio brokerage

serasker commander of the army

s¸eriat (Shari‘a) Islamic religious law

s¸eriyye sicilleri court registers

seruch probably a grain measurement

s¸eyh sheikh, head; popular religious leader; head of a tribe

seyyid descendant of the Prophet Muhammad

shihna military governor

shinik a capacity measure

s¸ifahane hospital

simsar the head of the brokers in a market

sipahi mounted soldier holding a timar; a member of the sultan’s cavalry

societ

a business partnership

solak a military unit

solakbas¸ı the commander of a solak

sommo silver coin used in Black Sea region

stadera steelyard balance with one arm

staperronos cloth measurement

strategos Byzantine commander in charge of a theme and its troops

subas¸ı commander; a government agent

un depor

tation

taghar provisioning

tahrir survey of land, population and sources of revenue

tahrir defteri written survey of a province

tamgha Mongol tax on commercial transactions

tarikat Suﬁ order

tefsir commentary on the Quran

427

Glossary

tekalif-i urﬁyye (tekalif-i

orﬁye) customary dues

tekfur local Byzantine ruler

tekke dervish lodge

temlik grant of freehold property rights

themes troops

timar revenue allotment in return for military service; a Persian term meaning care,

forethought, solicitude

timar eri holder of a timar

topc¸ı artillery corps

topc¸ıbas¸ı chief gunner

ufenkc¸i gunner unit

tuman 10,000, a Mongol military division

urbe grave, tomb

uc frontier region

uc¸ beyi marcher lord

vakﬁye deed of trust of a vakıf

vakıf pious foundation

vakıfname deed of trust

vali governor

veli holy man

vegeta de Napoli wine measurement

vezir a minister of the sultan

vilayet province

waqf see vakıf

yamak assistant

yarghuchi Mongol judge

yarligh decree

yaya footman, infantry

yenic¸eri janissary

yıldızname astrological book for predicting the future

yoldas¸ companion, retainer

yoldas¸lık originally denoted companionship and performing service as a retainer of a

military leader; came to mean participation in a campaign and a display of bravery

uk a load, a weight measurement varying widely according to merchandise and location

uk Turkoman nomad

zaviye dervish lodge

zeamet land held in return for military service

zeugarion

/jugum Byzantine

designation for the amount of land which could be ploughed

by a pair of oxen

zimmi (Arabic dhimmi) non-Muslim living under Islamic ruler

428

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