Danver Steven L. (Edited). Revolts, Protests, Demonstrations, and Rebellions in American History: An Encyclopedia (ENG)

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Anglicanism

The Church of England was created in 1534, breaking from the Roman Catholi c

Church during the reign of King Henry VIII (r. 1509–1547) of England. It created

a church for which the king o r queen of Engl and was the head of the Church of

England and its sister churches, the Church of Scotland, the Church of Ireland,

and the Church of Wales. Th e group together, later joined with other churches,

became known as the Anglican Communion—after the American War of Indepen-

dence, the followers of the Church of England became known as the Episcopali-

ans, as the Church of England upholds th at the king (or queen) of England is the

supreme head of the Church of England.

Because of the close connections between church and state, most of the mem-

bers of the British establishment were Anglicans, as were a majority of people in

England and a s izeable proportion of people in Wales and Scotland. Certainly

during the reign of Queen Elizabeth I (r. 1558–1603), although most of the people

had probably grown up as Roman Catholics, they attended Church of England

services in parish churches, a nd many came to prefer the more independent

thought allowed by the Anglicans. With the introduction of the Authorized Bible,

or King James Bible, in 1611, the majesty of the new translation of the Bible, com-

bined with the Book of Common Prayer introduced in 1549 during the reign of

King Edward VI (r. 1547–1553), many people had access to the Biblical text s in

English, allowing for greater knowledge of the Biblical events, which led to “free

thinkers,” which in turn led to the emergence of nonconformists and later Puritans.

In 17th- and 18th-century England, Anglicanism was not just a religious belief

as it now is. The country was divided into counties, but the church dioceses were

also important in terms of the church courts, which prove wills and the like. These

dioceses were divided into parishes, and much of the local administration of

England took place on a parish basis with the local vicar recording the dates of

baptism, marri age, and burial in parish registers and al so in rura l areas, helping

with the administration of the Poor Law, which was done on a parish basis. As

municipal cemeteries had not yet come into being, the vast majority of people

were also buried in the grounds of parish churches, or nearby areas. This system

had been translated to parts of British North America, but unlike England, the

parish administration did not control the Poor Law—indeed, there was no such

institution—and there were some municipal cemeteries. This helped separate

church and state from an early period, and as a result, the Anglicans were never

as powerful as a single political unit in the Americas as they were in England.

—Justin Corﬁeld

Further Reading

Baltzell, E. Digby. Puritan Boston and Quaker Philadelphia. New York: Free Press, 1979.

Dobrie, Bonamy. William Penn. London: Constable, 1932.

Dunn, Richard S., and Mary Maples Dunn. The World of William Penn. Philadelphia:

University of Pennsylvania Press, 1986.

Geiter, Mary K. William Penn. New York: Longman, 2000.

Philadelphia Election Riot (1742) 97

Pima Revolt (1751)

The Pima Revolt occurred in 1751, when the Pima Indians attacked the Spanish

settlers in Arizona in what became one of the largest conﬂicts on the northern fron-

tier of New Spain. It came after attacks by Native Americans on Spanish settlers

going back to 1684, when the Spanish started impacting on the lives of the Pima

Indians through mining and the en closing of land s. At the time of the revolt, the

Spanish settlers had come to equal the population of Native Americans, and as a

result, the Native Americans feared that the Spanish would quickly try to take over

the entire region.

Most of the Spanish did try to have positive interactions with the Native Amer-

icans, and vice-versa, but many of the tribes we re worried about the increase in

Spanish settlements and the expansion of their areas of control. Cattle were easy

to raise in the frontier areas, and these rapidly became the cause of many disputes.

The Spanish were angered when the Native Americans hunted them—they had

become important sources of food, and also leather for clothing—and they were

also often after horses, which had become important in their societies. Some Span-

ish had not been too concerned about the loss of some cattle, but with the theft of

horses, and the ability for the Native Americans to use the horses to round up cat-

tle, problems arose more and more frequently. Introduced diseases also proved a

problem for many Native Americans.

By the early 1700s, some of the Native Americans also had access to ﬁrearms,

which they bought from the French. They started raiding outlying Spanish settle-

ments, and in return the Spanish started providing guards for these and also mining

camps and other larger establishments. The Spanish were also involved in punitive

raids, which were similar in some ways to those by some Native Americans.

Raiding parties would attack any opposition, and use the attack as a way of seizing

cattle, horses, and slaves. Counter-reprisals started a series of border conﬂicts that

came to a head in 1751 when the Pima Indians decided to act. The increasing num-

bers of Spanish meant that they were soon becoming a minority in what had been

their lands, a nd they were worried about the continual colonization of the most

fertile areas of the region. The harshness of the terrain in Arizona had meant

that there was going to be come ﬁerce competition for the resources, but had also

meant that for the early part of the 18th century, the Spanish and Native American

communities had lived in relative harmony, and this had led to a large mixed

Spanish–Native American population. There were also many Nat ive Americans

who had grown up inﬂuenced by Spanish missions.

The ﬁrst revolt in the region was in 1737 when the Seris and the Western

Apache, and the Lower Pimas were involved in attacks on the Spanish. In 1740,

the rebellion was joined by the Yaquis and the Mayos, but the Spanish troops were

able to prevail. In 1749, the great Seri Revolt led to a prolonged series of attacks

on the Spanish, and as a result, the colonial authorities had to transfer many of

their troops from Sonora to ﬁght the Seris and the Apaches. This left the Spanish

population in Arizona without much military support, and this was one of the rea-

sons why the Pima undoubtedly decided to attack in 1751.

There had been a risin g level of discontent among the Pima India ns, and as a

result, Luis Oacpicagigua (Luis “of Sa

ric”) started trying to unite the Native

Americans, a difﬁcult task as the tribes had no central authority. It had been achieve d

in the Seri Revolt, and with that as an inspiration, gradually Luis Oacpicagigua had

managed to get about 15,000 people together and then decided to launch his attack.

It has been suggested by historians that there was no single “spark” that caused the

Pima Revolt, but rather long, simmering discontent, along with resentment about

the missionaries taking a larger role in the educating of children, and the whippings

they administered to men. Before the attack came, however, Oacpicagigua recog-

nized that the Spanish would lead a punitive raid against the Pima women and chil-

dren, and thus he managed to get most of the ci vilians to move their families to the

mountains of Baboquivari, taking with them enough food to sustain themselves there.

The attack on the Spanish began when Oacpicagigua lured some 18 settlers to

his home in Sa

ric. There, the settlers were all killed, and Luis Oacpicagigua then

led his supporters in attacks on a number of other isolated settlements including

the mission at Tubutama. However a missionary, Father Jacobo Sedelmayr, had

alerted another priest, Father Juan Nentvig, and the two had time to rally

some loyal Native Americans and barricade the mission as Oacpicagigua and

some 125 men attacked it. They set ﬁre to some of the mission but were unable

to take it. Two missionaries were killed in the ﬁghting, and attacks broke out

elsewhere in the region. Most of these were scattered, and about 100 settlers were

killed in total. Captain Jose

Diaz del Carpio was sent to deal with the problem, and

Luis Oa cpicagigua was forced to surrender on March 18, 1752, in a negotiated

agreement. The leaders of the revolt blamed the disturbances on the Jesuit

missionaries—and Oacpicagigua was able to provide details on the actions of

Jesuits there who had been involved in using land to produce revenue for their

order. This went down well with the Spanish authorities as they were looking to

expelling the Jesuits from Spain and the Spanish Empire, which took place in

1767. It also allowed the Spanish military commander, Captain Jose

Dı

az del

Carpio, to be more accommodating to ward the Native Americans who surrendered.

100 Pima Revolt (1751)

Fighting continued on a small scale, and Luis Oacpicagigua himself died i n

1755 in a Spanish jail. This followed the arrest of two other Pima chiefs who

had continued the ﬁghting against the Spanish and had been captured and tortured.

Both had attempted to commit su icide in prison, and so me people suspected that

Oacpicagigua’s death was from suicide. To prevent any further outbreaks of revolt

from the Pima, the Spanish then split the region into three presidios: San Ignacio

de Tubac (now Tubac County, Arizona), Santa Gertrudis de Altar (now Altar,

Sonora, Mexico) and San Carlos de Buenavista (no w Buenavista, Sonora, Mexico).

Gradually, the tribes were assimilated with man y more Native Americans were con-

verted to Christianity.

—Justin Corﬁeld

See also all entries under Pueblo Revolt (1680); Pontiac’s Rebellion (1763); Flight of the

Nez Perce

(1877); Wounded Knee I (1890); Trail of Broken Treaties (197 2); Wounded

Knee II (1973).

Further Reading

Bannon, John Francis. The Spanish Borderlands Frontier 1513–1821. Albuquerque: Uni-

versity of New Mexico Press, 1974.

Dobyns, Henry F. Tubac through Four Centuries: An Historical Resume and Analysis.

Phoenix: Arizona State Parks Board, 1999.

Ewing, Russell C. “The Pima Uprising 1751–1752: A Study in Spain’s Indian Policy.”

PhD thesis, University of California, Berkeley, 1934.

Ewing, Russell C. “Investigations into the Causes of the Pima Uprisings of 1751.”

Mid-America 23 (April 1941): 138–151.

Ewing, Russell C . “The Pima Outbreak in November 1751.” New Mexico H istorical

Review 8 (1938): 337–346.

Ewing, Russell C. “The Pima Uprising of 1751.” In Greater America: Essays in Honor of

Herbert E. Bolton, ed. Adele Ogden. Berkeley: University of California, 1945.

Salmo

n, Roberto Mario. “A Marginal Man: Luis of Saric and the Pima Revolt of 1751.”

The Americas 45, no. 1 (July 1988): 61–77.

Pima Revolt (1751) 101

Jesuits

The Jesuits were members of the Roman Catholic religious order called the Soci-

ety of Jesus, which was formed following a meeting in 1534 in Paris of Ignatius of

Loyola and other ardent Catholic students who wanted to form a group to work

against the ideas of the Protestant Reformation. They received papal approval for

their work three years la ter, and they were soon heavily involved in the Counter-

Reformation.

Over time, the Jesuits became feared in Protestant countries where persecution

was common. In Roman Catholic countries they became a powerful religious

force which was heavily involved in gaining support from some of the wealthiest

and most powerful Catholic rulers in Europe. As the Catholic powers, in particular

Portugal and Spain, started taking land in Asia, parts of Africa, and the Americas,

the Jesuits soon became associated with missionary work. To help pay for this,

many were involved in establishing what were, effectively, communes. Native

American tribesmen were encouraged to operate farms, which provided the Jesuits

with funds to keep their missions going. The most famous of these communes

were the reductions in Paraguay, shown in Robert Bolt’s ﬁlm The Mission

(1986). In North America, the Jesuits operated in New Spain, where they worked

with the Pima and other people s. Initially some of these were successful, but the

way in which the Jesuits administered the ones in modern-day Arizona was clearly

a cause of the Pima Revolt.

The Pima saw the produce from these Jesuits’ “plantations” going to enrich the

Jesuits, and not necessarily f or the beneﬁt of the people. They also resented the

Jesuits building whipping posts and being involved in publically ﬂogging

Pima. The Pima saw this as unneces sarily humiliating, as were the use of canes

by missionaries who tr eated Native American warriors as ch ildren. However the

Jesuits do seem genuinely to have converted so many people to Christ ianity th at

the number involved in the revolt was far lower than otherwise would have been

the case.

As a result, when the leader of the revolt, Luis Oacpicagigua, came to an

accommodation with the Spanish with his surrender in March 18, 1752, the Span-

ish colonial authorities (in particular the governor Diego Ortiz Parilla) saw that the

dislike of the Jesuits provided an easy scapegoat for the revolt. They were able to

catalog the grievances of the Pima against the Jesuits, and this in turn was to help

encourage—in time—members of the Spanis h government bring together their

plans for ejecting the Jesuits from the lands they controlled. However because of

the Seven Years’ War, this did not happen until the end of that conﬂict, when, in

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