Danver Steven L. (Edited). Revolts, Protests, Demonstrations, and Rebellions in American History: An Encyclopedia (ENG)

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including “Negroes” (tho se individuals transported directly from Africa or other

locations and sold in South Carolina as well as their children), “Indians,” “mulat-

toes” (individuals of ethnically black/white mixed parentage), and “mustizoes”

(individuals of ethnically Nati v e American/white mixed parentage). The document’s

ofﬁcial purpose can be seen in two separate categories. First, the Slave Code estab-

lished rules to ensure slaves remained in obedience and subjugation. Second, it out-

lined regulations to gov ern the conduct of slaveholders to ensure they did not prompt

slaves to run away or rebel through excessiv e mistreatment.

After l isting those categories of people who could be held as slaves, the 1740

document deﬁned the institution of slavery and outlined the position of individual

slaves and their offspring as personal property to be held in perpetuity unless

changed in accordance with existing laws such as those permitting the granting

or purchasing of personal freedom. Regul a ti ons governing t he conduct of slaves

included restrictions on movement. A slave could not cross the boundary of a plan-

tation or town, if living in the latter, without being accompanied by a white person

unless carrying written permission of the slaveholder. The 1740 Act even included

an example of a permission note. Punishment for this violation could be the receipt

of up to 20 lash es on the bare back. Any white individual who provided wri tten

permission for the movement of a slave without consent of the slaveh older had

to pay 20 pounds to the latter.

Other restrictions placed on slaves included details on the trial and punishment

of slaves who violated the 1740 Act, punishments for striking free individuals, and

the banning of personal business transactions c onducted by slaves in Charleston.

The 1740 Act outlined guidance for slaveholders and included the punishment

for beating a slave without “sufﬁcient cause” as a 40-shilling ﬁne. Slaveholders

who did not provide slaves with a labor-free Sunday without justiﬁcation were

subject to ﬁnes. The document provided the laws associated w ith the pursuit and

capture of escaping slaves. The General Assembly of South Carolina agreed in

the document to compensate any individual injured while pursuing or appre-

hending a runaway slave or a slave conducting an act deemed unlawful by the

Slave Act of 1740. Despite the existence of the rigid slave code, both slaves and

slaveholders tended to ignore the regulations whenever possible. A scanned copy

and a transcription of the actual Slave Code of 1740 from South Carolina can be

found at the website of the Teaching American History in South Carolina project

funded by the U.S. Department of Education.

—Terry M. Mays

Further Reading

Edgar, Walter. South Carolina: A History. Columbia: University of South Carolina Press,

1998.

Littleﬁeld, Daniel C. R ice and Slav es: Ethnicity and the Slave Trade in Colonial South

Carolina. Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1991.

Wax, Darold D. “ ‘The Great Risque We Run’: The Aftermath of Slave Rebellion at Stono,

South Carolina, 1739–1745.” JournalofNegroHistory67, no. 2 (Summer 1982):

136–147.

Wood, Peter H. Black Major ity: Negroes in Colonial South Carolina from 1 670 through

the Stono Rebellion. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1974.

Description of the Rebellion by Georgia Governor

James Oglethorpe (1739)

On September 9, 1739, a literate slave named Jemmy (or, in some sources, Cato) led about 20

other slaves in an armed uprising that eventually resulted in the deaths of about 25 whites. After

recruiting another 50 to 60 slaves, Jemmy tried to lead his followers into Spanish Florida, but the

slaves were caught by the South Carolina militia, and more than 40 died in the ensuing battle.

Below is a description of the uprising and its aftermath by J ames Oglethorpe, the governor of

the colony of Georgia. The Stono Rebellion was the la rgest Africa n slave insur rection of t he

colonial period.

76 Stono Rebellion (1739)

Sometime since there was a Proclamation published at Augustine, in which the King of

Spain (then at Peace with Great Britain) promised Protection and Freedom to al l

Negroes Slaves that would resort thither. Certain Negroes belong ing to Captain Davi s

escaped to Augustine, and were received there. They were demanded by General

Oglethorpe who sent L ieutenan t Demere to August ine, a nd t he Gover nour assured

the General of his sincere Fri endship, but at the s ame time showed his Orders from

the Court of Spain, by which he was to receive all Run a way Negroes. Of t his other

Negroes having notice, as it is believed, from the S panish Emissaries, four or ﬁve who

were Ca ttel-Hunters, and knew the Woods, some of whom belonged to Captain Mac-

pherson, ran away with His Horses, w ounded his Son and killed anot her Man. Th ese

marched f [sic] for Georgia, and were pursued, but the Rangers being then newly reduced

[sic] the Countrey people could not overtake them, though they were discovered by the

Saltzburghers, as they passed by Ebenezer. They reached Augustine, one only being killed

and another wounded by the Indians in their ﬂight. They were received there with great

honours, one of them had a Commission given to him, and a Coat faced with Velvet.

Amongst the Negroe Salves there are a people brought from the Kingdom of Angola in

Africa, many of these speak Portugueze [which Language is as near Spanish as Scotch is

to English,] by reason that the Portugueze have considerable Settlement, and the Jesuits

have a Mi ssion and School in that Kingdom and many Thou sands of the Negroes there

profess the Roman Catholic Religion. Several Spaniards upon diverse Pretences have

for some time past been strolling about Carolina, two of them, who will give no account

of themselves have been taken up and committed to Jayl in Georgia. The good reception

of the Negroes at Augustine was spread about. Several attempted to escape to the

Spaniards, & were taken, one of them was hanged at Charles Town. In the latter end of

Jul y last Don Pedro, Colonel of the Spanish Horse, went in a Launch to Charles Town

under pretence of a message to General Oglethorpe and the Lieutenant Governour.

On the 9th day of September last being Sunday which is the day the Planters allow

them t o work for themsel ves, Some Ango la Negroes assembled, t o the number of

Twenty; and one who was called Jemmy was their Captain, they suprized a Wareho use

belonging to Mr. Hutchenson at a place called Stonehow [Stono]; they there killed

Mr. Robert Bathurst, and Mr. Gibbs, plundered the House and took a pretty many small

Arms and Powder, which were there for Sale. Next they plundered and burnt Mr. God-

frey’s house, and killed him, his Daughter and Son. They then turned back and marched

Southward a long Pons Pons, which is t he Road through Georgia to Au gustine, t hey

passed M r. Wallace’s Tavern towards day b reak, and said they would not hurt him, for

he was a good Man and kind to his Slaves, but they broke open and plundered Mr. Lemy’s

House, and killed him, his wife and Child. They marched on towards Mr. Rose’s resolving

to kill him; but he was saved by a Negroe, who having hid him went out and paciﬁed the

others. Several Negroes joyned them, they calling out Liberty, marched on with Colours

displayed, and two Drums beating, pursuing all the white people they met with, and killing

Man Woman and Child when they could come up to them. Collonel Bull Lieutenant Gov-

ernour of South Carolina, who was then riding along the Road, discovered them, was

pursued, and with much difﬁculty escaped & ra ised the Countrey. They burnt Colonel

Stono Rebellion (1739) 77

Hext’s house and killed his Overseer and hi s Wife. They then burnt Mr. Sprye’s house,

then Mr. Sacheverell’s, and then Mr. Nash’s h ouse, all lying upon the Pons Pons Road,

and killed all the white People they found in th em. Mr. Bullock got off, but they burnt

his House, by this time many of them were drunk with the Rum they had take i n the

Houses. They increased every minute by new Negroes coming to them, so that they

were above Sixty, some say a hundred, on which they halted in a ﬁeld, and set to dancing,

Singing and beating Drums, to draw more Negroes to them, thinking they were now vic-

torious over the whole Province, having marched ten miles & burnt all before them with-

out Opposition, but the Militia being raised, the Planters with great briskness pursued

them and when they came up, dismounting; charged them on foot. The Negroes were

soon routed, though they behaved boldly several being killed on the Spot, many ran back

to their Plantations thinking they had not been missed, but they we re there taken and

[sic] Shot, Such as were taken in the ﬁeld also, were a fter being examined, shot on the

Spot, And this is to be said to the honour of the Carolina Planters, that notwithstanding

the Provocation they had received from so many Murders, they did n ot torture one

Negroe, but only put them to an easy death. All that proved to be forced & were not

concerned in the Murders & Burni ngs were pardoned, And this sudden Courage in the

ﬁeld, & the Humanity afterwards hath had so good an Effect that there hath been no far-

ther Attempt, and the very Spirit of Revolt seems over. About 30 escaped from the ﬁght,

of which ten marched about 30 miles Southward, and being overtaken by the Planters on

horseback, fought stoutly for some time and were all killed on the Spot. The rest are yet

untaken. In the whole action about 40 Negroes and 20 whites were killed. The Lieuten-

ant Governour sent an account of this to General Oglethor pe, who met the advices on

his return form the Indian Nation He immediately ordered a Troop of Rangers to be

ranged, to patrole through Georgia, placed some Men in the Garrison at Palichocolas,

which was before abandoned, and near which the Negroes formerly passed, being the

only place where Horses can come to swim over the River Savannah for near 100 miles,

ordered out the I ndians in pursuit, and a Detachment of the Garrison at Port Royal to

assist the Planters on any Occasion, and published a Proclamation ordering all the Con-

stables &c. of Georgia to pursue and seize all Negroes, with a Reward for any that should

be taken. It is hoped these measures will prevent any Negroes from getting down to the

Spaniards.

Source: Allen Chandler, ed., The Colonial Records of the State of Georgia, vol. 22 (Atlanta:

Chas. P. Byrd Press, 1913), 232–236.

78 Stono Rebellion (1739)

New York Slave

Insurrection (1741)

The New York Slave Insurrection of 1741, also known as t he New York Con-

spiracy of 1741, involved some slaves and also poor white settlers planning to burn

down N ew York City in a series of ﬁres, and then take over. The ill treatment of

slaves in New York had led to plots and conspiracies hatc hed by slaves either to

escape or to take revenge on their masters as well as ordi nary people whose atti-

tude to slavery was seen to be, at best, apathetic. These seem to have taken place

every two or three years from the 1690s, and in 1737, George Clarke, the acting

governor of New York, told the state legislature that slaves should not be hired

out to businesses where they could undercut the rates of pay charged by white

craftsmen and artisans because this was forcing some of the latter out of business,

and some of these had been forced to leave the state.

The War of Jenkins’ Ear, between Britain and Spain, broke out in 1739, and in

the following year, it became part of the bigger War of Austrian Succession. The

Spanish, to stir up trouble in the British colonies, had offered freedom to any slave

who supported them, and this had led to a small slave revolt in South Carolina

known as the Stono Rebellion, which had broken out in September 1739. With

many of the state troops in New York helping with the British attack on Cuba,

there were also fewer soldiers in the state than normal.

In the winter of 1740–1741, there was an economic depression in New York

City, which at that time had a population of 11,000, of whom 2,000 were slaves.

It was a cold winter, and some of the people were living in miserable conditions,

unable to afford enough fuel to keep warm. There was also great tension between

the poor whites and the slaves. Although the economic situation improved slightly,

by the early spring of 1741, many people were still in hardship. On March 18,

1741, the residence of the governor caught ﬁre, and the ﬂames spread to the church

adjoining it. Worried that the city archives might be destroyed if another nearby

building, where they were kept, also caught ﬁre, the governor ordered all the records

thrown out the windows, and they were then taken to the City Hall. A soldier,

Grifﬁth Evans, was burned to death in the ﬁre.

Another ﬁre broke out on March 25, after the one at the governor’s house, and

this time it was at the Battery, which burned down quickly. There was another ﬁre

aweeklater,onApril1,andmoreﬁresfollowedthisonaweeklybasis.There

were often ﬁres in th e city, but the n umber of t hem and their locations did make

some people suspicious. On April 6, 1741, a series of four ﬁres broke out, and a

white passerby saw a black man running away. He tried to catch him, and although

he was unsuccessful, with the help of other people, the suspect was identiﬁed as a

slave called Cuffee who was owned by Adolph Philipse. In theory, the slaves were

supposed to be watched and prevented from wandering the street at night, but this

was found to be impractical and hence not enforced.

The Council of the City of New York then began an investigation into the ﬁres,

and this task was entrusted to Daniel Horsmanden, who established a grand jury to

investigate “whites who sold liquor to blacks.” The ﬁrst man in his sights was John

Hughson, a poor shoemaker who had grown up in the town of Yonkers and then

moved to New York City about ﬁve years earlier along with his wife, daughter,

and mother-in-law. Unable to ﬁnd work as a cobbler, he opened a tavern near

Trinity C hurchyard on the Hudson River, quickly gaining a reputation as a place

for slaves, free African Americans, and soldiers. Stolen goods were regularly sold

there but the police wer e unable to pin the thefts on Hughson. The investigations

by Horsmanden centered on a group of convicted thieves—Cuffee, and two others

called Caesar (a slave owned by John Vaarck, a baker) and Prince (a slave owned

by John Auboyneau)—who became known as the Geneva Club. Caesar and Prince

had already come to the notice of the autho rities in 1736 when they le d slaves to

steal gin from Baker’s Tavern in New York—both being publicly whipped as

punishment.

Horsmanden had to get evidence on Hughson, which was ﬁnally provided by

Mary Burton, an indentured servant of Hughson. She told him that there was a

conspiracy by wh ich poor whites and African Americans were intent on burni ng

down New York. Gradually, Horsmanden managed to get more information from

Burton, especially a fter he threatened to jail her. She told him that Hughson was

working with Caesar, Prince, and Cuffee, and the four of them were hiring other

people to light a number of the ﬁres. Horsmanden then offered a reward of £100

for a white person, £45 for a free black or Indian, and £20 and freedom for a ny

slave, for information.

On Ma y 2, 1741, Caesar and Prince were found guilty of burglary a nd sen-

tenced to death. On the following day, a ﬁre engulfed seven barns, and the two

slaves who were caught were then burned at a stake. On May 6, Hughson and an

Irish woman called Peggy or Margaret Sorubiero, who worked as a prostitute at

Hughson’s tavern, were also arrested. Caesar and Prince were hanged on

May 11, and enough evide nce was collected to start tria ls of other conspirators.

Those arrested named other people, and those investigated named m ore. It was

not long before the hysteria had seen the naming of about half the adult male

80 New York Slave Insurrection (1741)

population of New York. Some of the slaves captured were Spanish sailors, or at

any rate claimed to be such, and this meant that they had to be sold to slave dealers

who took them to the Caribbean.

However, in his investigations, Horsmanden was convinced that the arson

attacks were too well organized for somebody such as John Hughson to organize.

This led him to investigate the background of John Ury, a teacher who had recently

arrived in New York. He spoke L atin and was arrested on sus picions that he was

actually a Roman Catholic priest, and then Horsmanden came to the view that he

was a Spanish agent who came to New York to stir up trouble. He was tried, named

by Burton as a conspirator, and executed. The result of the trials was that 17 African

Americans and 4 whites were hanged, 13 African Americans were burned to death,

and 70 were banished from New York City. As the hysteria died down, many of

the remaining prisoners were released. There is doubt that the Spanish were actually

involved, with many historians believing that it was actually a conspiracy of slaves

rather than inspired by the Spanish.

—Justin Corﬁeld

See also all entries unde r Stono Rebellion (1739); An tebellum Suppressed Slave Revolts

(1800s–1850s); Nat Turner’s Rebellion (1831); New Orleans Riot (1866); New Orleans

Race Ri ot (1900); Atlanta Race Riot (1906); Springﬁeld Race Riot (1908); Houston Riot

(1917); Red Summer (1919); Tulsa Race Riot (1921); Civil Rights Movement (1953–

1968); Watts Riot (1965); Detroit Riots (1967); Los Angeles Uprising (1992).