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sent into trays but go directly into the continuous

rectifier on the end of the column.

0013 A is the distillation column producing the phlegm;

while hot, phlegm is then extracted from the distilla-

tion column and sent directly to the purifying column

(B) of the continuous phlegm rectifier.

0014 The purifying column extracts the head foreshots,

after which the purified phlegm is sent to the rectify-

ing column (C) from which the drinkable pasteurized

alcohol is drawn off; the unpasteurized alcohol,

which is downgraded, and the low- and high-fusel

oils are also extracted.

0015Special devices have been added to the columns to

recycle the most volatile substances which are of

organoleptic interest (Figure 2).

0016This specific draw-off determines the final amount

of tailings in the distillate.

0017For the subsequent production of wine spirits, only

the higher alcohols are partially eliminated (high- and

low-fusel oils) in order to recompose the distillate as

desired. In this case, the resulting alcohol can only be

called distillate and not ‘spirits’, because of the high

percentage of alcohol – higher than 86% vol. –

required for sorting heavy impurities.

0018Methanol is extracted on a special multiple-plate

column (about 50 plates). This column has the disad-

vantage of eliminating not only the methanol but also

volatile compounds of organoleptic interest; a small

column can be added which separates the methanol

and the volatile substances, and the latter are reintro-

duced into the distillate.

0019Batch rectification for the production of wine spirits

or distillate This kind of still has a boiler similar

to that of the Charente still or of cylindrical boiler

stills. Primary spirits can be slightly oxidized before

redistillation. This batch rectier comprises a steam-

producing device, a 30-plate column, and cooler

satellites and circuits. Head and tail products can be

recycled in the boiler (Figure 3).

Composition of Brandies

0020Because of the nature of the raw material brought

into play (usually red wine) and how they are made,

brandies contain far fewer volatile substances than

Wine

Corrected wine spirit

Head products

Methanol

Water steam

Washy wine

Washy phlegms

fig0002 Figure 2 Continuous wine rectifier with head foreshot recuperation. A, distillation column; B, desulfitation column; C, concentration

column; D, demethanolation column; E, column for the separation of esters from methanol (head products); HR, head product

recycling; LO, low-fusel oils; HO, high-fusel oils; WS, wine spirit. Reproduced from Guigon and Cogat P (1991) Elimination des de

fauts

dans les eaux-de-vie de vin traditionelles. In: Les Eaux-de-vie Traditionelles d’’Origine Viticole, pp. 110–113. Paris: Lavoisier-TEC & DOC,

with permission.

Head

foreshots

Head

foreshots

Alcohol to be recycled

Alcohol

High-fusel oils

Low-fusel oils

Washy phlegms

Phlegms

Washy wine

Wine

fig0001 Figure 1 Indirect continuous wine rectifier. A, distillation

column; B, purifying column; C, rectification column. Reproduced

from Mariller C (1925) Distillation et Rectification des Liquides

Industriels. Paris: Dunod, with permission.

BRANDY AND COGNAC/Armagnac, Brandy, and Cognac and their Manufacture 585

Appellation d’Origine Contro

e (AOC) spirits

(Table 1); higher alcohols are rectified by specific

fusel oil separation processes; head products lose

most of their ethyl acetate and esters during the etha-

nal and sulfur dioxide elimination process.

0021Making brandy is usually a way of salvaging de-

fective wines or production surpluses. However, there

are some good-quality brandies made from wines

which are specially grown for the purpose and

vinified with limited quantities of SO

0022Gas chromatography is used to analyze volatile

compounds. As an example, the chromatogram in

Figure 4 shows some of the volatile alcohols, esters,

acids, and various aromatic components contained in

an ether-hexane extract of a brandy. Other analyses

can be carried out by injecting the spirits directly

into the chromatograph. The high levels of diethyl

succinate indicate that the wine distilled was older

than the wine used for Cognac and Armagnac.

Aging and Merchandising Preparations

0023As specified in the law, brandies are aged in wood

containers (sous bois); different processing methods

can be used: cold processing, ion exchange resins to

eliminate sulfur dioxide, calcium, and copper cations;

sugar, caramel, and boise

(infusions from oak

shavings) may be added. Brandies are reduced with

deionized water and must have a minimum 37.5%

vol alcohometric titer.

0024The entire production of French brandy is

exported.

Summary

0025Wine spirits of viticultural origin belong to French

cultural heritage; they also constitute a major part

of our economy.

0026Furthering our knowledge of their composition

reveals that traditional wine spirits have exactly the

Water steam

Wine spirit

Head foreshots

Tail products

Phlegms

fig0003 Figure 3 Batch rectifying still for the production of wine spirit

or distillates. A, boiler; B, distillation column (30 plates);

C, condenser; R, refrigerator (cooler); W, water. Reproduced

from Guigon D and Cogat P (1991) Elimination des de

fauts dans

les caux-de-vie de vin traditionelles. In: Les Eaux-de-Vie Traditio-

nelles d’Origine Viticole, pp. 110–113. Paris: Lavoisier-TEC & DOC,

with permission.

tbl0001 Table 1 General composition of different wine spirits. Results are given as g hl

1

pure alcohol (100% vol) of an average 15 samples

Armagnac Cognac Brandy

Average SD Average SD Average SD

Alcohol strength (% vol) 41.4 1.6 40.04 0.75 45.46 11.1

Dry extract (g l

1

) 4.5 3.5 6.7 3 8.43 1.58

Total acidity (as acetic acid) 153.9 57.6 103.6 28.2 31.46 8.23

Volatile acidity (as acetic acid) 106.5 37.5 59.3 19.3 19.06 3.53

Aldehydes (as ethanal) 23.3 6.4 19.3 8.25 25.33 7.32

Esters (as ethyl acetate) 109.6 34.7 72.9 7.2 54.8 6.72

Among esters, ethyl acetate 78.3 24 45 5.9 38.5 4.2

Furfural 1.2 0.8 2.45 0.93 0.35 0.14

Higher alcohol 441.4 42.3 444.4 127.5 258.4 23.28

Butan-2-ol 0.5 0.85 0.7 1.6 3.39 1.64

Propan-1-ol 49.4 13.5 43 7.8 25.06 2.22

2-Methylpropan-1-ol 104.5 19 121.7 18.8 55.43 5.09

Butan-1-ol 0.2 0.5 0.1 0.3 1.34 0.67

2-Methyl þ3-methylbutan-1-ol 286.6 33.2 312.3 29.6 172.73 20.46

Sum of volatile substances

682.1 83.6 632 42.2 357.5 31.36

Methanol 47 10.9 49.7 11.4 69.2 16.5

Most brandies are not yet ready for consumption.

Ethyl acetate is included with esters.

586 BRANDY AND COGNAC/Armagnac, Brandy, and Cognac and their Manufacture

same composition as wine; only the heaviest and most

polarized products are rectified (acetic acid, phenyl

ethanol, polyols).

0027 Major defects can only be eliminated with a distil-

lation column, but at the cost of eliminating compon-

ents which contribute to quality.

0028 Good-quality wine spirits can only be made with

good-quality wines; expensive aging in oak casks

should be reserved for noble products.

Armagnac

Historical Background

0029 According to scholars, Armagnac is the oldest known

wine spirit; it has been produced without interruption

since the early fifteenth century.

0030 The name is the result of successive transform-

ations of the word ‘arminiacum,’ meaning owned by

or estate of Arminius. Arminius may be the latinized

form of Hermann, a Saxon warrior and a companion

of Clovis, the Frank king, who crossed the Rhine in

406 to wage war in the south-west of France. A Count

of Armagnac is recorded in about 1032.

0031 As in many other regions of France, the vineyards

developed considerably under the Romans, until their

expansion was temporarily interrupted by a decree of

Emperor Domicien in 92 (in fact, half of the vines

were pulled up and not planted again until 267, when

Emperor Probus published an edict authorizing

wine growing in Gaul). Vines continued to be planted

all through the barbarian invasions and developed

essentially around the monasteries. A tithe levied by

the monks from the Abbey of Saint Mont (Gers)

testifies that wine was being produced in the tenth

century.

0032In 1254, Bayonne was actively trading with mer-

chants from northern Europe; wines from Chalosse

and probably from the west of Armagnac were

shipped down the Adour. Wines from Haut Armag-

nac passed in transit on their way to Bordeaux, but, in

1241, the Bordeaux authorities decided to regulate,

to their advantage, the Haut-Pays wines arriving in

Bordeaux.

0033For a region so far removed from any natural outlet

to the sea, distillation proved very early to be a rea-

sonable solution, with smaller volumes to transport

and without the quality of the wine deteriorating.

This explains why the Comte

of Armagnac became

the first region of France to develop distillation. At

the time, most of Aquitaine was English and wine

growing was certainly favored by the flourishing

trade between England and Northern Europe, as

well as by the pilgrimage to Santiago de Compostela.

min

0 1020304050

Stationary phase

60 70 80 90

34, 35

fig0004 Figure 4 Chromatogram of the extract of a brandy by ether hexane (concentration about three times); column FFAP 50 m  0.22 mm;

injection by splitless mode; temperature programming from 40 to 200



C. Identification of the peaks: 1, Ethyl butyrate; 2, 2-methylpro-

pan-1-ol; 3, isoamyl acetate; 4, isoamyl alcohols; 5, ethyl hexanoate; 6, hexyl acetate; 7, styrene; 8, acetoin; 9, ethyl heptanoate; 10,

ethyl lactate; 11, hexan-1-ol; 12, trans-hex-3-en-1-ol; 13, cis-hex-3-en-1-ol; 14, octan-3-ol (internal standard 1); 15, trans-hex-2-en-1-ol;

16, ethyl octanoate; 17, trans-linalol oxide (furane); 18, cis-linalol oxide (furane), 19, acetic acid; 20, benzaldehyde; 21, linalol; 22,

2-methylpropionic acid; 23, ethyl decanoate; 24, butyric acid; 25, 3-methylbutyric acid; 26, diethyl succinate; 27, a-terpineol; 28,

1,1,6-trimethyl-1,2-dihydronaphthalene (TDN); 29, methionol; 30, unknown; 31, unknown; 32, damascenone; 33, phenylethyl acetate;

34, ethyl dodecanoate; 35, hexanoic acid; 36, benzyl alcohol; 37, 2-phenylethanol; 38, heptanoic acid; 39, 4-ethylgaiacol; 40, ethyl

myristate; 41, octanoic acid; 42, 4-allylgaiacol (eugenol); 43, 4-ethylphenol; 44, ethyl palmitate; 45, decanoic acid; 46, ethyl stearate; 47,

ethyl oleate; 48, dodecanoic acid; 49, ethyl linoleate; 50, ethyl linolenate; 51, unknown; 52, myristic acid; 53, palmitic acid; 54,

palmitoleic; 55, linoleic acid.

BRANDY AND COGNAC/Armagnac, Brandy, and Cognac and their Manufacture 587

0034 In 1411, the archives of the Haute-Garonne show

that a distiller, M Antoine (aygua ardentarius), was

producing a wine spirit, ‘aygue de Bito,’ in Toulouse;

28 years later, in 1439, the same source mentions

other distillers: Jean Nouvel and his wife ‘facientes

aquam ardentum.’ One document, dated 1461, men-

tions the levy of taxes, which testifies to the beginning

of an Armagnac trade in Saint-Sever (Landes). In

1489, a document in the Gers archives mentions the

presence of a still in Solomiac (Gers). By 1550, both

Bordeaux and Bayonne were selling Armagnac to

northern Europe.

0035 Until the eighteenth century, wines were distilled in

pot stills; these were simple devices similar to those

described by Savonarole in 1440 in his treaty on

distillation, ‘Confidencia aquae vitae,’ in which he

describes the first copper still with a coil plunged in

cold water. It was only toward the mid eighteenth

century that distillation methods began to be im-

proved. In 1761, with the help and advice of the

chemist Chaptal, Menier invented a new process

known as continuous distillation, and this process

was patented by Adam in 1801.

0036 This new distillation technique rapidly spread to

the whole Armagnac area and is still the method used

today, with few alterations. However, the type of still

used in Charentes had to gain formal approval again

in 1972.

0037 The French Revolution boosted production:

50 000 hl of pure alcohol were produced in 1810,

and over 100 000 hl in 1873, corresponding to

107 000 ha of vines. At that time, the Armagnac vine-

yard was one of the largest in France but in 1879 it

was hit by phylloxera; 10 years later, alcohol produc-

tion had been reduced by two-thirds. The vineyard

was never to be entirely replanted and present-day

production wavers between 20 000 and 50 000 hl

per year as pure alcohol.

Appellation Areas, Soils, Climate, Vine stocks

0038The region of production covers about 12 000 ha,

divided into three areas: Bas-Armagnac, Te

nare

ze,

and Haut Armagnac (Figure 5).

0039Bas-Armagnac Bas-Armagnac is the most product-

ive area – about 60% of the vineyard – with acid,

predominantly sandy soils. Conversely, the soil in

Haut-Armagnac is mainly composed of calcareous

clay and has virtually ceased producing wine spirits.

A blend of wine spirits from several minor appella-

tions can only be called plain Armagnac.

0040Bas-Armagnac is a flat area, on the edge of the

Landes forest, and the slightly acid, siliceous clay

soil often contains iron oxides which endow it with

a dark color – hence the name ‘fawn sands.’

0041The annual mean temperature is 13



C, with 7.5



in winter and 20



C during the three summer months.

Annual rainfall is 892 mm. The rain is well spread out

over the year, with 1 mm minimum in July and 86 mm

maximum in May.

0042Te´nare`ze The hilly landscape of the Te

nare

ze area

consists of a variety of soils: sand, outcrops of calcar-

eous clay, and boulbe

nes (a mixture of clay and fine

sand) in the valleys. Being further away from the

ocean, and especially from the Landes forest, the

climate is a little more ‘continental,’ entailing atmos-

pheric disturbances and more rainfall.

0043Mean annual rainfall is 804 mm, the main differ-

ence from Bas-Armagnac being the frequent thunder-

storms in October.

BAS ARMAGNAC

TENAREZE

HAUT

ARMAGNAC

EAUZE

AUCH

CONDOM

fig0005 Figure 5 Armagnac in France and the three appellation areas.

588 BRANDY AND COGNAC/Armagnac, Brandy, and Cognac and their Manufacture

0044 Likewise, temperatures range between 7.2



Cin

winter and 26



C in summer. This difference is due

to wind conditions; the area is still exposed to the east

wind (vent d’Autan), which brings the end of summer

droughts and storms.

0045 Haut-Armagnac In Haut-Armagnac, soils are more

calcareous and the climatic differences even more

pronounced. The average period of sunshine in

Auch is 1934 h, surprisingly, this is 5% less than in

Bordeaux, perhaps because of a longer period of

cloud cover.

0046 The main different vine stocks allowed are Ugni

blanc, Baco 22 A, Folle Blanche and Colombard.

0047 Ugni blanc, an Italian vine stock related to Treb-

biano, is rapidly gaining ground, as it offers the

advantage of coming to maturity in the ‘troisie

poque’ (45 days after Chasselas maturation), thus

eliminating the problem of rot, and it produces low-

alcohol wines suitable for distillation. Baco 22 A,

which ranks second for making Armagnac, is a hybrid

of Noah (Vitis labrusca V. riparia) and Folle

Blanche; it matures 30 days or more after Chasselas

(‘maturite

de deuxie

me e

poque’), is very disease-

hardy and does not require grafting thanks to the

sandy soil of the Landes. This variety stands out as

an exception among the vine stocks used for French

AOCs. The Institut National des Appellations

d’Origine des Vins et Eaux-de-Vie (INAO: French

National Institute for Wine and Spirits Appellations

of Origin) is planning to eliminate it from the Armag-

nac vineyard by 2010. The rather ‘foxy’ flavor of

Baco wines, due to the presence of furaneol and me-

thylic anthranilate (‘labrusca’ character), disappears

during distillation and neither substance is detectable

in the spirits.

0048 The vineyards are of average size; pruning is man-

aged according to the Guyot method in one or two

stages; the vines are trellised and there are 4000–5000

vines per hectare.

Vinification

0049 Most vinegrowers use a grape harvester to harvest the

grapes and a continuous wine press to extract the

juice; such methods, which are usually too brutal for

immature grapes, have no particular drawbacks in

this case as long as the dregs are not strained too

much.

0050 The temperature of alcoholic fermentation is rarely

checked. Wines are not subjected to any enological

process, and sulfur dioxide is strictly forbidden

(Decree of 6 August 1936, modified 24 May 1956).

The alcohol strength of the wine varies considerably,

ranging between 8 and 11.5% vol or more; acidity is

average (4–6.5 g l

1

, expressed as H

). Malolactic

fermentation usually occurs spontaneously just after

alcoholic fermentation.

0051According to the Bureau Interprofessionnel de

l’Armagnac (BNIA: French Interprofessional Office

for Armagnac), 60 922 hl of pure alcohol were dis-

tilled in 1990, from 567 000 hl of wine. Production

this year has been particularly good. The average

annual production is about 20 000 hl 100% vol

alcohol.

0052By law, wines have to be analyzed in an appointed

laboratory to prove they are free of sulfur dioxide and

of sufficient quality to be used to make Armagnac.

Distillation and Regulations

0053Wines have to be distilled in the appellation area.

Two sorts of stills are used; the BNIA has listed the

following ones which are in use:

0054112 continuous stills: Armagnacais

005512 pot stills, producing less than 10% of the total

volume of Armagnac.

0056The maximum distillation alcohometric titer

allowed is 72% vol, the same as other French AOC

wine spirits (Decree of 6 August 1936). The minimum

alcohometric titer for white spirits (when they come

out of the still) is set at 52% vol.

0057Wines are required to be distilled between the end

of the harvest and 31 March of the following year

(Decree of 15 March 1988, modified).

0058The continuous Armagnac still (Figure 6) The con-

tinuous still used in Armagnac is made entirely of

annealed electrical-grade copper; it works very

much like steam-powered distillation and plays an

essential role in the specificity of armagnac.

0059The boilers, distillation columns, wine-heater, and

cooler constitute the still’s main parts.

0060The volume of the boiler ranges from 5 hl to a

maximum of 35 hl; it is divided into two or three

sections by separation plates. The total capacity of

the boilers must be at least equal to that of the cooling

unit, including the wine-heater and the cooler.

0061The column has five to 15 plates (the most recent

stills have about 12 plates). These plates are fitted

with different-shape bubble-through devices: bubble

caps, bell-shaped tunnels or oil grooves. The plates

above the wine arrival pipe are called dry plates and

help reduce tailings while increasing the alcohometric

titer.

0062The wine-heater is used to preheat the wine; the

coil inside raises the temperature to 70 or 85



which condenses the alcoholic vapors issuing from

the column. The capacity of the wine-heater varies

considerably (5–15 hl).

BRANDY AND COGNAC/Armagnac, Brandy, and Cognac and their Manufacture 589

0063 The cooler, which is generally smaller (3–10 hl)

than the wine-heater, is placed under the wine-heater.

After going through the wine-heater, the coil goes into

the cooler to achieve complete condensation and

cooling of alcoholic vapors.

0064 Sometimes, a head foreshot condenser system can

be fitted to the still, above the wine-heater; more

frequently, a tail product condenser is placed level

with the alcoholic vapor pipe, between the column

and the wine-heater. Tailings can also be collected in

the first turns of the coil. The condensed fractions can

be returned to the wine and recycled. A coil can be

added to the head of the column, to circulate pre-

heated wine in the head or tailings condensers; this

also helps to condense the least volatile products and

to increase the percentage of alcohol.

0065 The wine from the loading vat goes into the still,

at the bottom of the cooler, by force of gravity. The

flow is regulated with a gate-valve equipped with a

flowmeter. The spirits come out of the still through

the alcohometer holder where the temperature and

alcohometric titer of the distillate are measured.

Washy wines are evacuated continuously through a

syphon connected to the boiler.

0066 The daily quantity produced cannot exceed one

and a half times the capacity of the whole cooling

system.

0067The wine is always heated over an open fire, usu-

ally propane gas, although wood is still frequently

used to heat small stills.

0068Because of the way it works, Armagnac distillation

is not only far more economical than two-stage distil-

lation, but also three times as fast.

0069When it has been running for about 2 weeks, the

still is turned off and cleaned. Sediments accumulated

on the plates and residues prevent the copper from

fixing the volatile acids and sulfurous compounds.

Inadequate cleaning soon results in the appearance

of an unpleasant flavor and a greasy rancid smell, like

seconds.

0070To start the still, one proceeds as follows: first, the

boiler and the column are filled with water; once the

wine-heater and the cooler are full of wine, the fire is

lit; when the water begins to distill, the wine inlet pipe

is opened. As soon as the desired alcohometric titer

is reached (60% vol, for instance), the spirits are

recuperated.

0071With the Armagnac distillation method, the vola-

tile substances are either entirely distilled (higher

alcohols), or are more or less rectified (2-phenyl etha-

nol, ethyl lactate, 2,3-butanediol), according to their

polarity. The fatty acid ethyl esters and fatty acids

with a high molar weight are released by heating the

yeasts, which means that the quantity of these acids

depends on the the wine’s yeast content; generally

speaking, there are about four times fewer fatty acid

ethyl esters with 8, 10, and 12 atoms of carbon in

Armagnac than in Cognac. This leads connaisseurs to

claim that the quality of Armagnac comes from the

specific nature of its soils and the aromas of vines

harvested at maturity and not only from their yeast

ester content (Table 2).

A: Head of wine, B: cooler, C: wine heater, D: head condenser,

E: wine arrival, F: column, G: boilers, H: head of column,

I: swan neck, J: coil, K: drawing and recycling of tailings

L: alcohometer holder, M: furnace.

fig0006 Figure 6 Armagnac still.

tbl0002Table 2 Distillation of volatile substances (average from 50

wines and their corresponding spirits)

Wine

(mgl

1

)

Spirit

(mgl

1

)

% Recovery

Ethanol, (% vol) 11.1 59.7

Higher alcohols 373 2043 102

Methanol 41.4 194 87

2-Phenyl ethanol 53 32 10

Higher alcohol acetates 2.61 12.7 90

Volatile acid ethyl esters 1.46 14 177

Ethyl acetate 41 207 94

Diacetyl 0.65 2.91 83

Volatile acids (C3 – iC5) 4.12 10.79 38

Volatile acids (C6 – C12) 11.2 34.2 56

Ethyl lactate 340 248 14

Acetic acid 400 118 5.5

Butane-2,3-diol 549 14.9 0.5

590 BRANDY AND COGNAC/Armagnac, Brandy, and Cognac and their Manufacture

0072 To modify the composition of the spirits, the distil-

ler mainly controls two parameters: wine flow and

heating.

0073 How the still is adjusted plays an essential role in

the composition of the spirits: lowering the heating or

increasing the wine flow brings down the temperature

at the head of the column and results in a higher

alcohometric titer; in this case higher alcohol and

ester concentrations correspond exactly to the per-

centage of alcohol, in other words, the quantity of

these substances expressed in g hl

1

remains constant

(Figure 7).

0074 Conversely, the amount of substances called tail-

ings, of which there is usually a surplus in Armagnac,

decreases exponentially when the percentage of

alcohol increases. For prolonged aging, a large quan-

tity of tailings is an advantage because of the ‘winey’

character of their molecules; but if the Armagnac is

to be marketed soon, it is preferable to make a

high-proof distillate to limit the amount of such

substances.

0075 Two-stage pot stills These stills are used in the same

way as for Cognac; however, in Armagnac, sediments

are never reintroduced in suspension into the wine

before distillation. Two-stage distillation has its ad-

vantages: the Armagnac ages more quickly and can

thus be marketed much earlier, although it loses some

of its specificity in the process.

Analysis

0076 Two sorts of analysis are carried out on wine-spirits:

(1) traditional analyses; and (2) analyses to improve

knowledge of the products and establish correl-

ations between their chemistry and organoleptic

observations.

0077Traditional analyses Their purpose is to determine

real and raw volume-percentages of alcohol (titra-

tion), dry extract, total acidity, and the ratio of non-

alcoholic elements, i.e., volatile acidity, aldehydes,

esters, furfural, and higher alcohols; methanol values

are determined separately.

0078Table 1 shows mean values for Armagnac and

Cognac, compared to brandy. The sum of volatile

substances of brandy is noticeably lower than the

others; this is due to the fact that it is elaborated in

columns.

0079Conversely, brandy contains more methanol than

Armagnac or Cognac, because it is made essentially

with red wines.

0080Gas chromatography Gas chromatography is used

to analyze volatile compounds. As an example, the

chromatogram in Figure 8 shows some of the volatile

alcohols, esters, acids, and various aromatic compon-

ents contained in an ether-hexane extract of Very

Special Old Pale (VSOP) Armagnac. Other analyses

can be carried out by injecting the spirits directly into

the chromatograph. The high levels of butanediol

found in Armagnac show that it is rich in tail

products.

0081A set of average values can be established from

these analyses (Table 1).

0082Carbonyl compounds are currently being analyzed;

long-chain aldehydes seem to be specific to Armag-

nac; methyl ketones, glyoxal, and methyl glyoxal

levels increase with age. These carbonyl compounds

contribute to the rancid character of old wine-spirits.

0083Different high-performance liquid chromatog-

raphy (HPLC) analyses can also be carried out by

absorption spectroscopy to measure the principal

phenolic compounds extracted from wood which

contribute to the vanilla flavor that develops with age.

Σ Higher alcohols

Σ Esters x 100

Butanediol x 40

Ethyl lactate

Phe-ethanol x 40

50 54 5652 58 60 62 6664 68 70

400

300

200

100

500

600

Volatile substances (mg/L)

Alcoholic strength of distillation (%vol.)

fig0007 Figure 7 Relationship between alcoholic strength of distillation and content of volatile substances.

BRANDY AND COGNAC/Armagnac, Brandy, and Cognac and their Manufacture 591

0084 Sensory analyses Sensory analyses can also be

carried out by experienced wine-tasters. Tasters fill

in a multiple-choice question tasting-card, and tick

off the boxes corresponding to their perceptions;

there are also questions related to ‘hedonistic’ sensa-

tions. Since Armagnac comprises several hundreds of

substances, it is extremely difficult to describe it ac-

curately in just 20 questions (which is a maximum),

but no other solution is forthcoming. Results are

often computer-processed using multidimensional

analysis methods; multiple correspondence factorial

analysis is the best suited.

0085 The main features of old Armagnac are its aroma of

prunes, its ‘rancio’ taste, its complexity; it is vigorous

and even rough, with a long-lasting palate.

Aging and Merchandising Preparations

0086 Wine spirits are usually aged in oak casks. Coarse-

grained wood is preferred (Gascony or Limousin) to

fine-grained wood, as it is slightly more permeable

to oxygen and yields more tannin.

0087 At this stage, oxidation is of prime importance, not

only for the development of the substances originat-

ing from the wood, but also for the distillate itself.

Alcohol is oxidized into acetic acid, the quantity of

which increases threefold in 20 years; pH, which is 5

in a young wine spirit, drops to 3.5; acids in turn

partially become esters; and, in the end, only the

higher alcohols remain relatively unchanged in rela-

tion to ethanol.

0088Oak consists of 40–45% cellulose, 20–25% hemi-

cellulose, 25–30% lignin, and 8–15% tannins. The

optimal alcohometric titer to extract these compon-

ents with wine spirits is around 55% vol. Armagnac

just out of the still lends itself perfectly to harmonious

aging.

0089The amount of substances extracted from the wood

depends on whether the cask is new or old; over a 12-

year period, a new cask can produce three times as

much as an old one.

0090Spirits with too much tannin (castalagin and vesca-

lagin) can be harsh and astringent.

0091With time, lignin is transformed into aromatic al-

dehydes and phenolic acids.

0092Armagnac contains vanillin, syringaldehyde, con-

iferaldehyde, and sinapaldehyde, but only the vanillin

is detectable at tasting.

0093Although there are a variety of aging methods,

spirits are usually kept in new casks for 6 months to

1 year before being transferred to old casks.

0094Prior to being marketed, several wine spirits are

blended and the alcohometric titer of the blend

(the cut) is reduced to a minimum of 40% vol with

distilled water. The naturally golden-yellow color can

be enhanced with caramel. Sometimes, infusions or

decoctions made from oak shavings are added to

min

10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90

fig0008 Figure 8 Chromatogram of the extract of an Armagnac by ether hexane (concentration about 3 times); column FFAP 50 m 0.22 mm;

injection according to splitless mode; temperature programmation from 40 to 200



C. Identification of the peaks: 1, Ethylbutyrate; 2,

2-methylpropan-1-ol; 3, isoamyl acetate; 4, isoamyl alcohols; 5, ethyl hexanoate; 6, hexyl acetate; 7, styrene; 8, acetoin; 9, ethyl

heptanoate; 10, ethyl lactate; 11, hexan-1-ol; 12, trans-hex-3-en-1-ol; 13, cis-hex-3-en-1-ol; 14, octan-3-ol (internal standard 1); 15, trans-

hex-2-en-1-ol; 16, ethyl octanoate; 17, trans-linalol oxide (furane); 18, cis-linalol oxide (furane), 19, acetic acid; 20, benzaldehyde; 21,

linalol; 22, 2-methylpropionic acid; 23, ethyl decanoate; 24, butyric acid; 25, 3-methylbutyric acid; 26, diethyl succinate; 27, a-terpineol;

28, 1,1,6-trimethyl-l,2-dihydronaphtalene (TDN); 29, methionol; 30, inconnu; 31, inconnu; 32, damascenone; 33, phenylethyl acetate; 34,

ethyl dodecanoate þhexanoic acid; 35, benzyl alcohol; 36, trans-whisky lactone; 37, 2-phenylethanol; 38; cis-whisky lactone; 39, 4-

ethylgaiacol; 40, ethyl myristate; 41, octanoic acid; 42, 4-allylgaiacol (eugenol); 43, 4-ethylphenol; 44, ethyl palmitate; 45, decanoic acid;

46, ethyl stearate; 47, ethyl oleate; 48, dodecanoic acid; 49, ethyl linoleate; 50, ethyl linolenate; 51, inconnu; 52, myristic acid; 53,

palmitic acid; 54, palmitoleic; 55, linoleic acid.

592 BRANDY AND COGNAC/Armagnac, Brandy, and Cognac and their Manufacture

make the Armagnac more astringent, to give it more

body; however, these preparations must be at least the

same age as the youngest spirit used for the commer-

cial designation of the final product. Sugar solutions

are sometimes added to attenuate the ‘burn’ of the

alcohol (about 6 g l

1

0095 Finally, before being bottled, the spirits are cold-

processed (usually 1 week at 5



C) and passed

through a cellulose filter to eliminate any possible

cloudiness due to an excess of calcium or fatty acids.

0096 Vintage spirits from a single harvest of a particular

year are sometimes sold with no prior reduction of

their natural alcohometric titer. Vintage Armagnacs

constitute an exception among wine spirits; some of

them are extremely valued and fetch high prices.

0097 The various commercial designations are based on

the youngest spirit in the blend (cut) the BNIA keeps

updated registers listing the age (compte d’a

ge) and

volume of all the different Armagnacs stored in any

given storehouse (Table 3).

Cognac

0098 The first distillation of wine for the production of

Cognac took place in Charente in 1622. In fact it

was in the province of Aunis that this distillation

took place, but historically the development of the

vine in this area of the south-west of France is related

to the economic development of the old maritime

province of Saintonge. This was much vaster and

extended from the Se

vre Niortaise to Angoule

me,

the north of the Dordogne, and the Gironde river.

But, it only really developed from 276 ad with the

edict of the Roman emperor Probus who granted the

privilege of cultivating the vine which had hitherto

been granted only to Romans in 92 ad.

0099 During the thirteenth century trade flourished, in

particular with the shippers of the Nordic countries

who came to buy not only the salt of the Saintonge

salt-pan created by the Romans but also the wine of

Ritsel (La Rochelle) and Saint Jean (d’Ange

ly). Since

demand perpetually increased, the wine of the ‘haut

pays’ began to be traded as the small coastal rivers

were navigable (Boutonne river which goes to Saint

Jean d’Ange

ly and especially the Charente river,

navigable up to Saintes, Cognac, Jarnac, and Angou-

leme). Dutch sales representatives settled in Tonnay-

Charente, then in Cognac, which was a ‘tax stage’ city

between the provinces of Saintonge and Angoumois

and which in the fifteenth century had an adminis-

trative infrastructure appreciated by the traders.

0100Another important event was the marriage of

Eleanor of Aquitaine with Henri Plantagenet in

1152. This opened up an era of great prosperity for

this province which could practise the trade of wine

since it was now attached to England. The province

then began to plant vines massively. At the end of

the sixteenth century, when the Dutch became the

masters of maritime trade, brandy gradually replaced

wine and it was also used as a currency of exchange

for spices, metals, and slaves. The Dutch stimulated

the production of aquavits and brandevins which

insured a perfect conservation of the distilled product

and made it possible to reduce the volume to be

transported. However, because of the proximity of

the sea, the Dutch could distil the wine on their

premises because the trip was not too long. This

explains the relatively late appearance of distilla-

tion in Saintonge (two centuries later than in

Armagnac).

0101At the beginning the stills were imported from

Holland. They were manufactured with Swedish

copper but the production of stills in Bordeaux and

then in the Cognac area began about 1724. At that

time there occurred a kind of wine revolution which

led certain areas to increase their production, in order

to have the greatest volume for the Dutch merchants.

On the other hand, other areas preferred the produc-

tion of high quality, thereby implying limited yields.

Such was the case in particular for the wines of

Bordeaux, Burgundy, Champagne, for the liqueur

wines of Sauternes, Bergerac, and Borderies (area to

the north-west of Cognac), and finally for Cognac

brandies.

0102In fact, it seems that tax reasons encouraged the

middle-class rich of the city of London to search for

top-of-the-range products. Since taxation of wines

and alcohols was very high from 1628, it was neces-

sary to pay high prices, so the product had to be of

excellent quality. By storing brandy in wood barrels,

the English to some extent invented the aging that is

now known to transform brandies into delicious,

much more agreeable products for consumption.

Moreover, the term ‘Old Cognac Brandies’ appeared

in London in 1700. With the Augier family in 1943,

the British, for example, Jean Martell (1715) and

Richard Hennessy (1765), were partly responsible

for setting up the true commercial structures which

still remain today.

tbl0003 Table 3 Major commercial designations of Appellation

d’Origine Contro

e (AOC) wine spirits

Category Minimum age

(compte d’Jge)

Average age

Three Stars 2 About 2 years

VO, VSOP 4 5 years

XO, Extra, Napoleon 5 6 years

Vieille Re

serve, Hors d’Age

VO, Very Old; VSOP, Very Special Old Pale; XO, extra old.

BRANDY AND COGNAC/Armagnac, Brandy, and Cognac and their Manufacture 593

0103 At that time, the trade in wines and brandies was of

equal importance but thereafter, brandy production

really came to the fore.

0104 The production of Cognac began on the chalky

slopes located to the south-east of Cognac, an

area called ‘Champagne’ because of the nature of

the grounds. The vineyards extended gradually to

the surrounding wooded regions. Starting from

15 000 ha in 1600, the vineyard reached 100 000 ha

in 1800 and 255 000 ha in 1878, just before the

phylloxera epidemic which destroyed the Charentais

vineyard.

0105 Nevertheless, the multiple obstacles to trade of all

types, in particular the wars, resulted in huge volumes

of spirit being stored. In 1873 this was evaluated at

7 277 000 hl of Cognac. This made it possible to over-

come the period of reorganization of the vineyard

without losing important customers, in particular

the English.

0106 The Viala mission (1887) found an American vine

in Texas, Vitis berlandieri, which was resistant to

phylloxera and adaptable to the charentais soils

which are very rich in limestone. This made it possible

to create rootstocks which were not susceptible to

chlorosis (when the leaves cannot synthesize chloro-

phyl owing to iron deficiency). Under the control of

Alexis Millardet, the father of the bouillie bordelaise

(copper sulfate þlime) used for treatment against

mildew, research led to the 41 B rootstock, a hybrid

of chasselas and V. berlandieri. This rootstock was

used to reconstitute the vineyard, and gradually the

old traditional type of vines like folle blanche or

Colombard were replaced by the better-adapted

white Ugni blanc cultivar. The average quality of

brandies from Ugni blanc is higher than that of folle

blanche brandies from the last century because the

latter was subject to gray rot.

The Vineyard

0107 Double Guyot pruning of the vine is practiced. Now-

adays, the plants are 1 m 30 on the rows and 3 m

between the rows. Pruning is done with two long

branches arched downwards. The number of buds is

50 000–60 000 per hectare, i.e., 20–22 buds per foot.

Normally the vine is trellised with five or six wires.

0108 Blossoming (de

bourrement) of the buds take place

between the end of March and beginning of April,

flowering is about June 20–25, ripening (veraison)

between August 25 and September 10, and harvesting

generally begins about October 10.

The Climate

0109 The climate is moderate and wet, rather similar to

that of Bordeaux, with average temperatures þ6.5



in winter and 21.7



C in summer. Rainfall (800 mm of

rain per year) is distributed over 130–150 days.

The Appellation Areas

0110There are six appellation areas (crus) (Figure 9) cor-

responding to particular soils, which may also be

influenced by climate. For a long time tasters classi-

fied brandies according to the sectors. The decree

fixing these areas was promulgated in 1909. The

limits were modified in 1938.

0111The Grande Champagne comprises 27 com-

munes of the Cognac district. The soils are clay-

calcareous surmounting a friable calcareous layer

of cretaceous soil which absorbs excess water

and which, in dry periods, constitutes a reservoir

locally, called the volant of quality. From a cli-

matic point of view, this is both the hottest and

driest area, with the nearby sea having relatively

little influence.

0112The Petite Champagne is concentric in relation to

Grande Champagne. Its characteristics are similar

but slightly different brandies have produced. A

mixture of grande and petite champagne is harmo-

nious, and is called fine champagne.

0113Borderies, on the right of the Charente river, to the

north-west of Cognac, has soil composed of sand

and clay (instead of calcareous and clay in the

other areas) on a calcareous base, and gives par-

ticular brandies which age with a typical bouquet.

0114The Fins Bois were formerly wooded areas (before

the nineteenth century). The soils composed of

hard stones are from Jurassic, and with a cret-

aceous calcareous base. They give brandies which

are not as fine as the preceding ones but which age

more quickly.

0115The bons bois soils contain less limestone, so may

also be more influenced by the climate.

0116The bois ordinaires are primarily the north of

maritime Charente and the islands. Here, the sea

influence is more marked, and the wines and

spirits may sometimes reflect this in taste.

Production

0117Between 1956 and 1973, the possible yield per hec-

tare rose from 3 hl of pure alcohol (PA) to 11.5 hl PA.

During the years 1967–1973 the average yield

was approximately 7 hl. AP ha

1

. Nowadays it is

about 9 hl ha

1

. For the 1999 vintage approximately

3 850 000 hl of white wine was distilled, giving

325 000 hl PA of Cognac (approximately the equiva-

lent of 100 000 000 bottles of Cognac). The same

quantity has been sold in 2000 with more than 90%

for the export market.

594 BRANDY AND COGNAC/Armagnac, Brandy, and Cognac and their Manufacture