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leaching in water. Salt stock pickles make up the

largest percentage of fermented pickle products.

0019 The controlled fermentation of pickles has been a

goal of the industry for years. In 1973, such a proced-

ure was introduced in the USA. Although the industry

has yet to adopt the entire process, addition of some

of the modifications outlined has improved pickle

quality in general. In particular, most processors

now acidify and purge tanks after brine is added.

Acidification inhibits the growth of acid-sensitive

Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria and,

therefore, favors the growth of lactic acid bacteria.

Purging decreases the incidence of bloating, which

results from carbon dioxide production by both the

fermenting microorganisms and the cucumber itself.

0020 Genuine dill These pickles are fermented in 4–5%

sodium chloride, to which dill weed, garlic, and other

spices have been added. It takes approximately 3–6

weeks for fermentation to reach completion, where

the lactic acid content is 1.0–1.5% and the salt con-

tent is 3–3.5%. This type of pickle does not require

desalting, but may be sold as such with the filtered

fermentation liquor. Genuine dill pickles are some-

what susceptible to scum yeast development and

should be consumed within 12 months of

manufacture.

0021 Overnight dill Overnight dill pickles are fermented

in 2–4% sodium chloride, containing dill weed and

garlic, until the desired level of acidity (0.75–1%

titratable acidity as lactic acid) is reached, which

should take approximately 1 week. The product

must then be refrigerated, and should not be kept

longer than 6 months due to its extreme perishability.

Nature of Preservative Action

0022 Two components of the pickling process, acid and

salt, are key participants in the preservation of per-

ishable products. Acid, which may be added directly

or produced through microbial conversion of indi-

genous sugars to acids, will lower the pH of the

product and inhibit spoilage microorganisms. Only

undissociated acid molecules are active in inhibiting

microorganisms; therefore, it is important that the

acidity of pickles be pH 3.5 or below, when most of

the acid present will be in the undissociated form. Salt

also acts to inhibit the growth of undesirable bacteria

and to delay enzymatic softening. (See Acids: Natural

Acids and Acidulants; pH – Principles and Measure-

ment.)

0023 In fermented pickles, microorganisms ferment

sugars to lactic acid and also produce enzymes which

modify pickle texture. The absence of fermentable

carbohydrates is a deterrent to undesirable secondary

fermentations which can be initiated by yeasts at pH

values below 3.8. Residual sugars can also cause gas

production and brine turbidity in finished products if

yeast and bacteria growth continues.

0024Lactic acid bacteria are the primary microorgan-

isms involved in preservation of fermented pickled

products. Although these microorganisms represent

only a smaller proportion of the total microbial flora

present on the surface of plant materials, they pre-

dominate under acidic conditions. In cucumbers,

L. mesenteroides typically grows until the pH begins

to drop, then Pediococcus pentosaceus predominates,

followed by Lactobacillus brevis and finally L. plan-

tarum.(See Lactic Acid Bacteria.)

0025Acidity, salt concentration, temperature, and sani-

tary conditions are the primary environmental factors

which control fermentation. Most vegetables range in

pH from 6.5 to 4.6, while fruits range from 4.5 to 3.0.

In fruits and fruit juices, yeasts and molds predomin-

ate in the more acidic environments. Salt inhibits the

growth of undesirable microorganisms and, in add-

ition, it withdraws water and nutrients from plant

tissues and allows these to become substrates for

lactic acid bacteria.

0026Low temperatures inhibit the growth of lactic acid

bacteria and thus slow fermentation. At 7.5



C, Leu-

conostoc mesenteroides will grow, but the growth of

Lactobacillus and Pediococcus species is very low.

At temperatures in the range 18–23



C, L. brevis

and L. plantarum exhibit active growth while, at



C, L. plantarum and P. pentosaceus predominate.

Pasteurization is often the final step in pickle process-

ing. The US Department of Agriculture recommends

that all pickled products should be pasteurized for

safety.

Sensory and Nutritional Attributes

0027Pickling imparts unique characteristics to fruits and

vegetables. Desirable changes in flavor, texture, and

color take place in fermented, pasteurized, and re-

frigerated pickles, and are carefully monitored. How-

ever, some of the same bacteria involved in normal

fermentation, such as the lactic-acid-formers, may

cause spoilage if not destroyed. Selected pickling

problems which may affect sensory quality are listed

in Table 1.

0028Pickled cucumbers are composed primarily of water

(Table 2). They are not a good source of protein or fat,

but are a fairly rich source of vitamin A, vitamin C, and

phosphorus. Salt and sugar additions to the brine will

affect the sodium and carbohydrate contents. (See

Sensory Evaluation: Sensory Characteristics of

Human Foods.) Refer to individual nutrients.

PICKLING 4565

Specific Examples

0029 Pickled cucumbers are by far the most abundant

pickled product available in the western world

today. Other common pickled products include sauer-

kraut, pickled pears, peaches and plums, pickled nuts,

relishes, cured meats, fish and poultry, and specialty

items such as pickled mushrooms and cherries.

0030 Salt stock is used to prepare sour cucumber pickles,

which typically have a final acidity not lower than

2.5%. Sweet pickles are prepared in a similar fashion,

except that a sweet, spiced vinegar solution is added

to the salt stock.

0031 Sauerkraut is produced through salt-controlled

bacterial fermentation. Cabbage selected for sauer-

kraut should have at least 3.5% sugar to insure an

adequate carbohydrate source for bacteria. Shredded

cabbage is mixed with salt (2.25% by weight) and the

final product contains an average of 1.5–2.0% lactic

acid.

See also: Acids: Natural Acids and Acidulants;

Fermented Foods: Beverages from Sorghum and Millet;

Lactic Acid Bacteria; Pasteurization: Principles; pH –

Principles and Measurement; Vinegar; Sensory

Evaluation: Sensory Characteristics of Human Foods

Further Reading

Binsted R, Dewey JD and Dakin JC (1939) Pickle and Sauce

Making. London: Food Trade Press.

Fleming HP (1984) Developments in cucumber fermenta-

tions. Journal of Chemical Technology and Biotechnol-

ogy 34B: 241–252.

Fleming HP and McFeeters RF (1981) Use of microbial

cultures: vegetable products. Food Technology 1: 84–88.

McNair JK (ed.) (1975) All About Pickling. San Francisco:

Ortho Books.

Pederson CS (1930) Floral changes in the fermentation of

sauerkraut. NYSAES Technical Bulletin 168.

Pederson CS (1979) Microbiology of Food Fermentations,

2nd edn. Westport: AVI.

Peterson MS (1977) Pickles. In: Desrosier NW (ed) Elem-

ents of Food Technology, pp. 690–691. Westport: AVI.

Steinkraus KH (1983) Handbook of Indigenous Fermented

Foods. New York: Marcel Dekker.

US Department of Agriculture (1936) Service and Regula-

tory Announcements, no. 2, rev. 5. Washington, DC:

Food and Drug Association.

Pigments See Colorants (Colourants): Properties and Determination of Natural Pigments; Properties and

Determinants of Synthetic Pigments

tbl0002Table 2 Nutritive analysis of pickles: the composition of 100 g of

edible portion (approx. 1 large dill pickle or 1/2 cup of fresh

cucumber pickle slices)

Fermented

dill

pickles

Sweet

pickles

Sour

pickles

Freshpack

cucumber

pickles

Water (%) 93 60.7 94.8 78.7

Food energy (J) 46.2 613.2 42 306.6

Protein (g) 0.7 0.7 0.5 0.9

Fat (g) 0.2 0.4 0.2 0.2

Carbohydrate (g) 2.2 36.5 2.0 17.9

Ash (g) 3.6 1.7 2.5 2.3

Calcium (mg) 26.0 12.0 17.0 32.0

Iron (mg) 1.0 1.2 3.2 1.8

Vitamin A (IU)

100 90 100 140

Thiamin Trace Trace Trace Trace

Riboflavin (mg) 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.03

Vitamin C (mg) 6.0 6.0 7.0 9.0

Phosphorus (mg) 21.0 16.0 15.0 27.0

Potassium (mg) 200.0

Sodium (mg) 1428.0 1353.0 673.0

Reproduced from McNair JK (ed.) (1975) All About Pickling. San Francisco:

Ortho Books, with permission. 1 IU ¼ 0.6 mg b-carotene.

Table 1 Selected pickling problems

Problems Cause

Soft, slippery slimy pickles

(discard pickles, spoilage is

occurring)

Hard water

Acid level too low

Cooked too long or at too

high a temperature

Water bath too short,

bacteria not destroyed

Jars not airtight

Jars in too warm a resting

place

Shriveled, tough pickles Pickles overcooked

Syrup too heavy

Too strong a brine or

vinegar solution

Pickles not fresh enough at

outset

Fruit cooked too harshly in

vinegar/sugar mixture

Dark, discolored pickles Iron utensils used

Copper, brass, iron, or zinc

cookware used

Hard water

Metal lid corrosion

Too great a quantity of

powdered and dried spices

used

Iodized salt used

Reproduced from McNair JK (ed.) (1975) All About Pickling. San Francisco:

Ortho Books, with permission.

4566 PICKLING

Pilchards See Fish: Introduction; Catching and Handling; Fish as Food; Demersal Species of Temperate

Climates; Pelagic Species of Temperate Climates; Tuna and Tuna-like Fish of Tropical Climates; Demersal Species

of Tropical Climates; Pelagic Species of Tropical Climates; Important Elasmobranch Species; Processing;

Miscellaneous Fish Products; Spoilage of Seafood; Dietary Importance of Fish and Shellfish; Fish Farming; Fish

Meal

PINEAPPLES

L G Smith, Maroochy Research Station, Nambour,

Queensland, Australia

This article is reproduced from Encyclopaedia of Food Science,

Introduction

0001 The pineapple (Ananas comosus (L.) Merr.), botanic-

ally a member of the ornamental Bromeliaceae

family, originated in tropical South America but is

now widely grown in all tropical and subtropical

areas of the world. In Spanish-speaking countries

the fruit is known as pina; in Portuguese-speaking

countries as abacaxi; as ananas in Dutch- and

French-speaking former colonies, and as nanas in

southern Asia. More than 4.5 10

t, both fresh

and canned, is marketed worldwide each year from

at least nine major countries (Tables 1 and 2), with

the major cultivar by far being the large juicy-fruited

smooth-leafed cultivar Smooth Cayenne. Wild pine-

apple varieties still grow in the tropical savanna of

South America but most have small, seedy, fibrous

fruits. (See Fruits of Tropical Climates: Commercial

and Dietary Importance.)

The Plant, its Appearance, and Physiology

0002 The pineapple is a perennial, monocotyledonous,

xerophytic plant, up to 1.5 m high, of herbaceous,

lily-like habit, but with tough, spiny-tipped leaves

that are waxy on the upper surface and possess a

fragile dusty bloom on the underside. The leaves in

all but a few cultivars, such as the important Smooth

Cayenne, also have numerous formidable barbs along

the edges, which make cultivation hazardous. In all

varieties the concave leaves channel any precipitation

into the plant center for absorption by spongy leaf

tissue and roots. Other features which enhance the

shallow-rooted plant’s adaption to low rainfall in-

clude leaves that do not wilt, and its crassulacean

acid metabolism (CAM), in which the stomata open

at night to take up carbon dioxide rather than in the

day, greatly reducing water loss. Malic acid is accu-

mulated during the night and is decarboxylated

during the day.

0003The fruit of the pineapple, botanically a sorosis or a

syncarp, comprises spirals of fused fleshy fruitlets

radiating from a fibrous but succulent core and

topped with a leafy crown or top, an extension

of the peduncle or central plant stem of the plant

(Figure 1). The crown is planted for reproduction,

when available. The commercial fruit, grown as a

monoculture of genetically identical plants, is nor-

mally seedless due to a genetic self-incompatibility.

If cross-pollinated, by wind, natural vectors, or delib-

erately by humans, as in breeding trials, viable small

hard-coated seeds 1–2 mm across will form, capable

of producing a new plant and fruit within 2–3 years.

The commercial plant produces one fruit 14–24

months after planting, but two or more vegetative

shoots (suckers) subsequently produce additional rat-

toon crops. Fruits become smaller with successive

rattoons and usually a maximum of two rattoon

crops are commercially viable.

0004Because pineapple plants cannot tolerate frost or

prolonged cold, production is restricted to coastal or

near-coastal areas of low or moderate elevation. They

tend to thrive on tropical and subtropical islands,

where the surrounding water mass maintains a more

ideal constant temperature and moderate humidity.

Varieties

0005The classification of existing pineapple varieties is

currently under complete review. The Cayenne variety

was previously seen as but one of five recognized

groups of A. comosus, the other four being Spanish,

Queen, Pernambuco, and Mordilona. The five groups

are compared in Table 3. Most likely these will soon be

reclassified to be just varieties of the one species

A. comosus, better to reflect the true genetic

PINEAPPLES 4567

tbl0001 Table 1 Pineapple production in countries for years 1980–2000, listed alphabetically

2000 1998 1996 1990 1980

World 13 455 362 12 235 777 12 136 658 11 297 972 10 836 109

American Samoa 20 20 20 20 20

Angola 32 000 38 000 38 000 32 000 36 000

Antigua and Barbuda 150 150 150 150 96

Argentina 3500 3500 3900 3500 3400

Australia 123 000 123 000 127 864 141 603 123 265

Bangladesh 148 580 148 580 148 575 162 445 153 365

Benin 78 440 44 836 89 410 25 000 3000

Bolivia 52 535 46 385 22 050 10 000 7860

Brazil 1 353 480 1 113 219 1 145 981 1 103 897 565 829

Brunei Dar-us-Salam 700 700 650 720 610

Cambodia 16 000 16 000 15 000 12 000 5600

Cameroon 48 000 52 000 48 000 35 000 34 000

Central African Republic 14 000 13 500 12 800 10 700 6600

China 1 318 450 960 982 854 113 697 178 304 004

Colombia 407 753 360 000 329 300 341 790 126 960

Congo, Democratic Republic of 196 000 204 364 201 453 160 000 127 500

Congo, Republic of 13 000 12 500 13 000 11 600 10 200

Cook Islands 50 80 100 200 1950

Costa Rica 400 000 400 000 260 000 160 000 9500

Cuba 19 000 19 000 19 000 22 000 17 832

te d’lvoire 225 675 198 306 250 687 232 543 294 000

Dominican Republic 100 410 107 752 108 620 70 000 20 000

Ecuador 123 597 79 947 57 851 59 021 135 023

El Salvador 5000 4500 6000 15 405 17 870

Ethiopia PDR 2521 200 200

Fiji Islands 1632 2521 3456 3516 3000

French Guyana 3026 3026 3392 1850 80

French Polynesia 5100 1160

Gabon 700 650 650 630

Ghana 35 000 35 000 35 000 11 000 6600

Guadeloupe 6900 6900 6900 4660 225

Guatemala 102 060 110 450 98 429 67 131 32 326

Guinea 71 858 71 858 65 000 51 072 16 500

Guinea-Bissau 200 200 200 180 50

Guyana 7000 7000 7193 7600 1860

Haiti 3300 3270 2320 2200 2000

Honduras 71 000 72 621 68 500 61 410 30 230

India 1 100 000 1 100 000 1 100 000 881 000 548 980

Indonesia 256 691 326 956 501 111 390 340 180 543

Jamaica 19 275 19 062 19 808 9332 3898

Japan 11 000 12 800 18 800 31 900 56 200

Kenya 280 000 300 000 310 000 225 000 180 000

Korea, Republic of 1500 1280 2419 9115

Laos 34 000 34 000 32 000 32 000 32 000

Liberia 7000 7000 7000 7000 7000

Madagascar 51 000 51 000 50 000 50 100 53 520

Malaysia 143 000 143 000 163 000 213 000 185 273

Martinique 20 200 20 200 21 150 24 010 18 257

Mauritius 1200 1462 2973 1355 258

Mexico 485 597 480 856 301 406 454 668 622 729

Mozambique 13 000 18 000 16 000 15 500 13 000

Nicaragua 47 000 46 000 45 000 42 000 34 000

Nigeria 881 000 857 000 800 000 763 000 600 000

Panama 28 089 19 000 17 288 12 624 5638

Papua New Guinea 11 000 11 000 14 500 11 800 8700

Paraguay 41 000 38 872 30 676 32 710 32 344

Peru 150 000 127 910 112 835 68 423 57 605

Philippines 1 495 120 1 495 120 1 542 240 1 155 748 1 004 800

Portugal 2000 2000 2000 1500 1605

Puerto Rico 19 204 19 204 18 933 46 812 34 627

union 13 000 13 000 6639 8370 3500

Continued

4568 PINEAPPLES

differences between the five groups, now known to be

smallerthanoriginallybelieved.TheCayennevarietyis

themostproductiveandthemostwidelygrownvariety

aroundtheworld.Allothervarietieshaveinferiorcom-

mercial characteristics, from inadequate yield, fruit

morphology, or susceptibility to a range of diseases

anddisorders.Subselectionsor‘clones’ofSmoothCay-

enne have been made in different production areas of

the world, and more recently many new cross-bred

varieties have been produced, particularly for the

fresh-fruit market. Breeding and refining new pine-

apple varieties are very difficult due to the extremely

heterozygous nature of the genotype. Plant breeders

normally back-cross new varieties to eliminate the

more minor unwanted characteristics, but in the pine-

apple this procedure results in the reintroduction of

20001998199619901980

Samoa57005700570055005100

Seychelles145140130110118

SouthAfrica154000133518134121169897221879

SriLanka6200062000616104135345651

Sudan49504900480035004500

Suriname40042540025550

Swaziland8000800078485700027553

Tanzania,UnitedRepublicof7500074000740007000047000

Thailand22809591786234198670018652903688400

Togo500500500500

TrinidadandTobago34003400340034002600

Uganda500500450400

UnitedStatesofAmerica319300301180315000521630596020

Venezuela,BolivianRepublicof1821532521731757458055477403

VietNam262838195842185000467851336639

WallisandFutunaIslands44444

Zimbabwe10090100100

DatafromFoodandAgricultureOrganization.(www.fao.org)

tbl00 02 Table 2 Themajorpineappleproducingcountriesindecreasingorder,fortheyear2000,showingfruitproductionstatistics

Production(Mt)Areaharvest(ha)Yield(Mtha

1

year

1

)

World1345536271868218.7

Thailand22809599676823.6

Philippines14951204020037.2

Brazil13534805603124.2

China13184503530037.3

India11000008200013.4

Nigeria8810001150007.7

Mexico4855971214340.0

Colombia407753650062.7

CostaRica4000001300030.8

Hawaii319300850037.6

Kenya280000850032.9

VietNam262838290809.0

Indonesia256691400006.4

ted’Ivoire225675520043.4

Congo,DemocraticRepublicof196000800024.5

Venezuela,BolivianRepublicof182153955419.1

SouthAfrica154000620024.8

Peru150000979515.3

Bangladesh1485801379210.8

Malaysia143000758018.9

Ecuador1235971200010.3

Australia123000265046.4

Guatemala102060410024.9

DominicanRepublic100410280035.9

DatafromFoodandAgricultureOrganization.(www.fao.org)

Table 1 Continued

PINEAPPLES 4569

many unwanted genotypes. Genetic engineering is

being investigated as a way around the problem of

extreme heterozygosity, but to date no new genetically

modified variety has been commercially released.

Composition and Nutritional Value

0006 The pineapple fruit is typically a supplementary food

rather than a staple. The pineapple’s very sweet and

sour taste, its mild aromatic flavor, and firm succulent

flesh in a large and attractive form make it somewhat

unique among foods. While very palatable by itself, it

is equally used as a flavoring component, both cold

and hot, making many other less attractive but

nutritionally sound foods more edible. The dietary

composition of Smooth Cayenne, both fresh and

canned, is shown in Table 4. The nutrient profile of

the pineapple is, in general, similar to many other

fruits, containing high levels of carbohydrate and

low levels of fat and protein. Dietary fiber constitutes

about 14% of the dry matter and, as with most fruits,

can be incorporated into a cholesterol-lowering diet.

Its vitamin C content is about one-tenth that in citrus,

and the level of retinol equivalents (3 per 100 g) is low

compared to those of pawpaw (papaya) (153) and

mango (356). Refer to individual nutrients.

0007The total sugar content is the major quality deter-

minant of the fruit for both fresh and canned markets

and in commercial practice sugar content is often

regularly monitored, using a refractometer calibrated

in degrees Brix which, in pineapples, is virtually iden-

tical to percentage total sugar. Fresh Smooth Cayenne

fruit above 15



Brix would be considered of excellent

eating quality by most tasters and fruit of 9–12



Brix

of marginal quality; however, taste preferences to-

wards Smooth Cayenne of a particular Brix level

vary considerably between individuals and also be-

tween ethnic groups. In canned pineapple the sugar

content of the fresh fruit makes less difference to

consumer quality.

Variability of Organoleptic Parameters

0008Wide variations occur in the total sugar content and

titratable acidity in fresh pineapples. Not only is the

bottom of the fruit always about 3



Brix higher than

the top but, more importantly, there is wide variation

between samples. For example, the 8% total sugars

from Queensland fruit in Table 4 is very low com-

pared to fruit from Hawaii or Ivory Coast and is

either from immature summer fruit (average mature

fruit is 15–18



Brix) or is from winter-grown fruit

(6–11



Brix). Fruit grown under cooler conditions is

lower in sugar and higher in acid, although the sour

taste of winter-grown pineapples is caused by the low

sugar content rather than the high acidity.

Postharvest Changes

0009The postharvest changes in various parameters in

fruit held near 20



C during 15 days after harvest

are illustrated in Figure 2. Total sugar concentration

and eating quality remain relatively constant after

harvest; acidity and carotene content increase moder-

ately, while the shell color (degree of yellowness of the

skin) and ester concentration increase substantially.

Skin Color and Ripeness

0010Although the fruit normally changes from green to

yellow as the fruit ripens on the plant, skin color is a

Crown

Cuple and

floral parts

Nectary

gland

Locule

Core

Bract

Peduncle

Nectary

gland

Nectary

duct

Sepals

Individual

fruitlet

Stem of

crown

Cuple

fig0001 Figure 1 Mature pineapple: on the right, median longitudinal

section; on the left, tangential longitudinal section. Adapted from

Py C, Lacoeuilhe JJ and Teisson C (1987) The Pineapple: Cultiva-

tion and Uses. Paris: GP Maisonneuve et Larose, with permission.

Reproduced from Pineapples, Encyclopaedia of Food Science,

Food Technology and Nutrition, Macrae R, Robinson RK and Sadler

MJ (eds), 1993, Academic Press.

4570 PINEAPPLES

tbl0003 Table 3 Characteristics of the major pineapple varieties

Cayenne

Spanish Queen Pernambuco

Perolera

Main production Worldwide Caribbean South Africa Brazil Colombia

Malaysia Australia Venezuela Ecuador, Peru

Weight (kg) 1.8–3.5 1–1.8 0.5–1.2 1–1.8 1.8–2.5

Shape Cylindrical Spherical Conical Conical Cylindrical

Ripe skin color Orange-yellow Reddish yellow Bright yellow Green-yellow Bright red-yellow

Ripe flesh Near translucent Near translucent Opaque Opaque Opaque

Flesh fibrosity Nonfibrous Fibrous Crisp Nonfibrous Crisp

Flesh color Pale yellow Near white Bright yellow White-yellow Bright and pale yellow

Flavor Sweet and acid Spicy Aromatic Low acidity Low sugar and acidity

Wilt resistance ***** * ** ** **

Nematodes ***** * ** ** **

Uses Fresh, canned Fresh Fresh Fresh Fresh

Major export Minor export Minor export Minor export Minor export

The term ‘varieties’ is currently under review: see text.

Includes Smooth Cayenne, which is but one variety of the Cayenne group.

Other name abacaxi, but this should be avoided as it means ‘pineapple’ in Portuguese.

* resistant, ***** very susceptible.

Based on data from Py C, Lacoeuilhe JJ and Teisson C (1987) The Pineapple: Cultivation and Uses. Paris: GP Maisonneuve et Larose.

tbl0004 Table 4 Composition of 100 g of pineapple flesh

Canned

heavy syrup, drained

Canned

pineapple juice, drained

Fresh

peeled

Fresh

peeled

Proximate

Water (g) 74.8 84.6 86.0 80–86

Energy (kJ) 350 188 158

Protein (g) 0.8 0.7 1.0 0.2

Fat (g) 0.0 0.0 0.1 0

Carbohydrate, total (g) 20.4 10.2 8.0

Sugars, total (g) 20.4 10.2 8.0 10–18

Starch (g) 0.0 0.0 0.0

Ash (g) 0.2 0.3 0.5 0.3–0.6

Cholesterol (mg) 0 0 0

Acids, total (g) 0.5–1.6

Total nitrogen (mg) 45–120

Pigments, xanthophylls (mainly carotenoids) (g) 0.2–0.3

Dietary fiber (g) 1 2 2

Minerals (mg)

Sodium 1 4 2 14

Potassium 76 140 180 11–330

Calcium 5 6 27 3–16

Magnesium 10 14 11 10–19

Iron 0.3 0.5 0.3 0.05–0.3

Zinc 0.2 0.3 0.2 0

Vitamins

Retinol equivalents (mg) 3 3 4

Retinol (mg) 0 0 0

b-Carotene equivalents (mg) 18 18 25

Thiamin (mg) 40 30 40 69–125

Riboflavin (mg) 30 30 30 20–88

Nicotinic acid equivalents (mg) 0.3 0.3 0.3

Nicotinic acid (mg) 0.2 0.2 0.1 0.2–0.3

Vitamin C (mg) 15 14 21 3–25

Queensland fruit; data from Composition of Foods Australia. Australian Food Publishing Service, Canberra. 1989.

From Py C, Lacoeuilhe JJ and Teisson C (1987) The Pineapple: Cultivation and Uses, Paris: GP Maisonneuve et Larose; data presumably based on fruit

from Ivory Coast.

Data not given.

PINEAPPLES 4571

poor indication of palatability in Smooth Cayenne

pineapples grown under commercial practices.

Green-skinned fruits can taste quite acceptable. Such

‘green-ripe’ pineapples can either be physiologically

‘unripe’ (meaning physiologically not fully de-

veloped) but have sufficient sugar to taste acceptable,

or their flesh may be prematurely ripened before the

skin as a result of specific climactic (i.e., climate,

nothing to do with the nonclimacteric fruit physi-

ology) conditions during growth. This latter type of

‘green-ripe’ fruit tend to taste insipid and the condi-

tion is now regarded as a physiological disorder. On

the other hand, attractive yellow-skinned fruit can

taste sour. (See Ripening of Fruit.)

0011 One way of selecting intact Smooth Cayenne

fruit of uniform ripeness is on the basis of fruit spe-

cific gravity. Fruits that float in water are less ripe

than those that sink. Fruits that sink in a 3% common

salt solution are very ripe. This method works well

for Queensland and Hawaiian fruit but reportedly

not South African. The difference has not been

explained.

Fresh Fruit Selection

0012 Probably as a result of the variability of eating qual-

ity, there is a degree of folklore applied in the deter-

mination of when a harvested pineapple is ‘ripe,’ with

potential purchasers plucking crown leaves, or

squeezing, smelling, and tapping the fruit. Leaf

plucking is completely useless, but fruits that feel

heavy for their size will be riper than lighter fruit of

the same size. However, the postharvest nonripening

character of pineapple means that once the fruit is

picked the eating quality is fixed. There is no advan-

tage for consumers in waiting for the harvested fruit

to yellow, as delay only results in the fruit losing

volatile flavors and going ‘stale.’

Factors Affecting Pineapple Eating

Quality

0013 At its best, Smooth Cayenne is a most delightful fresh

fruit to eat, but the eating quality of fruits produced

from different seasons and growing areas is extremely

variable, much more so than other pineapple var-

ieties. The eating quality of Smooth Cayenne is prob-

ably the most variable of any commercial fruit. It is

difficult, if not impossible, even for an expert, to

predict the eating quality, even when the fruit is cut.

The eating quality or flavor of pineapple is almost

totally dependent on the percentage of sugar in the

flesh rather than the degree of visual ripeness. The

sugar content is strongly affected by the temperature

and light intensity during the last 3–4 weeks of

growth, and, as a consequence, the sugar content in

the fresh fruit is greatly affected by the season,

climate, the degree of maturity at harvest and, to a

lesser extent, the farm production methods.

0014Smooth Cayenne grown in equatorial regions gen-

erally have consistent and excellent eating quality. In

the subtropical regions, where significant quantities

of the Smooth Cayenne of fresh commerce are grown,

the eating quality is most often very variable as a

result of the daily and seasonal variations of tempera-

ture. Many subtropical production areas have de-

veloped because they are closer to areas of major

urban populations and consumption, but in these

areas the seasonal inconsistency of flavor is an

important problem, particularly in fresh-market

pineapples.

Fruit Physiology

0015A unique feature of the pineapple is that flowering

(with subsequent fruit set) is controllable by growth

hormones over an extremely wide range of plant

maturity. Modern commercial production practices

can regulate date of harvest to fall virtually any day

of the year; thus fruit production can be precisely

programmed.

0016Pineapples are nonclimacteric fruits and do not get

better to eat (i.e., do not ripen) after harvest, in spite

of any subsequent color change (Figure 2). Other

members of this same group of fruits include oranges,

strawberries, grapes, and cherries. The absence of

starch in the fruit is often cited as the cause of the

nonripening postharvest behavior, but many climac-

teric fruits also contain no starch. The physiology

involved needs to be better clarified.

Handling, Storage, Refrigeration, and

Chilling Injury

Handling

0017In spite of its tough appearance, Smooth Cayenne is

very susceptible to injury and needs to be handled

with care. The fruits will readily bruise if they fall

more than 20 cm and, once bruised or injured,

a ubiquitous fungal disease caused by Ceratocystis

paradoxa (Thielaviopsis paradoxa), which generally

spreads quickly throughout the fruit, can readily de-

velop. Commercially, fruit are commonly treated

with fungicides such as thiabendazole, benomyl, or

triadimefon. In contrast to Smooth Cayenne, Queen

fruits develop fewer postharvest rots and in many

ways are ideal fresh-market fruits. They keep well

without refrigeration and, if free from developing

blackheart, have a much longer shelf-life than

Smooth Cayenne. (See Fungicides.)

4572 PINEAPPLES

Storage and Refrigeration

0018 Although pineapples can keep reasonably well with-

out refrigeration, particularly if the humidity is kept

high to prevent desiccation, refrigeration is necessary

to maintain a glossy, fresh-looking skin and to reduce

the incidence of rots. However, pineapples do not out-

turn well if kept refrigerated for longer than 2 weeks.

They can suffer from ‘chilling injury,’ a physiological

injury caused by cool temperatures, resulting in dis-

ruption of the cellular enzymic processes. It is a dis-

order characteristic of many tropical fruits which will

often develop within 2–3 days after removal from

refrigeration. In pineapples, chilling injury is manifest

most commonly by the fruit developing brown spots

adjacent to the core; these are sometimes called en-

dogenous brown spots. With increasing severity, the

spots darken further, and in severe cases the complete

center of the fruit can become black, giving rise to

the other name for the disorder, blackheart (Figure 3).

0019Chilling injury is a constant threat when pineapples

are shipped under refrigeration, and intermittent

heavy losses occur. Storage for 3–12 days at tempera-

tures as high as 21



C have been shown to induce

blackheart, but injury incidence is unpredictable, pos-

sibly dependent on the intensity of available sunlight

during the 3–4 weeks prior to harvest. Temperatures

of 15–18



C induce the greatest injury but, as the

fruits are usually shipped at 8



C for 7–10 days from

tropical production areas, they are usually consumed

before any injury develops.

0020Fruits from the Queen group are very susceptible

to chilling injury but a Hawaiian variety, known

as 53/116, appears to be entirely resistant. This

hybrid variety has several quality deficiencies (often

fig0003Figure 3 Blackheart or internal browning in pineapple, a

serious disorder in fresh-market pineapples which can develop

following refrigeration, but which also naturally occurs in sub-

tropical production areas. It is a physiological disorder (i.e., not a

pathogenic disease), known as chilling injury and caused by

prolonged exposure to temperatures below 21



C. Reproduced

from Pineapples, Encyclopaedia of Food Science, Food Technology

and Nutrition, Macrae R, Robinson RK and Sadler MJ (eds),

1993, Academic Press.

(a) Storage time

(b) Storage time

Shell color

Carotene

Ascorbic acid

Esters

Acidity

Brix

Eating quality

(less mature fruit)

Eating quality

(mature fruit)

fig0002 Figure 2 Postharvest changes in chemical and sensory param-

eters over 15 days. Eating quality data from the author (unpub-

lished). Other data from Singleton (1959), as quoted by Dull GG

(1970). The pineapple: general. In: Hulme AC (ed.) The Biochem-

istry of Fruits and their Products, vol. 2, pp. 303–324. London:

Academic Press. Reproduced from Pineapples, Encyclopaedia of

Food Science, Food Technology and Nutrition, Macrae R, Robinson

RK and Sadler MJ (eds), 1993, Academic Press.

PINEAPPLES 4573

developing a cannonball shape, or lacking a crown),

but because of its good blackheart resistance and

lo\w acidity, it is slowly developing wider acceptance

in Australia. Dipping the fruit in a carnauba-based

wax, or applying a lipid-carboxymethyl cellulose

coating, can control blackheart. These skin coatings

function by reducing the oxygen concentration in the

flesh, necessary for the melanin pigment to develop,

but the anaerobic flesh can develop an alcoholic

flavor. Heating the fruit to 40



C for 24 h either im-

mediately before or after cool storage also reduces

blackheart and improves pineapple eating quality,

but is not commercially used because of logistical

limitation.

0021 Pineapples that are cool-stored for prolonged

periods can also develop other symptoms of chilling

injury such as flaccid watery flesh, skin necrosis,

crown wilting, and crown necrosis, but fruit with

such injuries are often already damaged by internal

chilling. Overcoming chilling injury in fresh-market

pineapples is currently under investigation.

Controlled-Atmosphere Storage

0022 Controlled-atmosphere storage does not prolong the

life of the cool stored pineapples and is not used for

international shipping. (See Controlled-atmosphere

Storage: Applications for Bulk Storage of Foodstuffs.)

Field Blackheart

0023 Pineapples from cooler production areas are particu-

larly susceptible to blackheart, where it can develop

in the field following periods of cool overcast weather.

Because the disorder shows no external symptoms,

affected fruit cannot be identified. In Queensland and

Hawaii pineapple canneries close or restrict intake

during such periods and thus avoid excessive losses.

Pineapple Products

0024 Canned pineapple is a commodity of major inter-

national trade; figures showing exports and imports

are shown in Table 1. Pineapples are also processed

into a number of other products other than canned

fruit. Pineapples are often used as a component of

commercially marketed fresh fruit salad, either fresh

or frozen. Less ripe fruits freeze best as they have

firmer flesh. Soft ripe fruits can develop off-flavors

when frozen, as well as turning out very flaccid. Fried

pineapple pieces are commonly used in Asian cuisine.

Dried pineapple pieces are easily prepared and are

being sold in increasing quantities as they retain a

more attractive appearance than other fruits that

strongly darken when dried. Sliced thin and dried,

pineapple ‘chips’ are also sold as a snack food.

Glace

pieces are readily prepared from either the

fresh product or, more easily, from canned rings.

Pineapple juice is a major item of commerce, as

fresh or frozen, full strength, or as a concentrate.

Reasonably high in carbohydrates, fermented juice

is used to make vinegar. It does not make a good-

quality wine but, fermented and distilled, it makes a

potent, if somewhat disreputable, alcoholic spirit,

available in several Pacific island countries. Cannery

waste (crushed skins, etc.) makes a good cattle feed

supplement, while old plantation fields are often let

out to cattle. Pineapple leaves are used to make cloth

or rope in both Taiwan and the Philippines, while use

of the whole plant as a source of energy is under

current investigation. (See Canning: Quality Changes

During Canning; Freezing: Structural and Flavor (Fla-

vour) Changes.)

Bromelain

0025Pineapple fruits contain a proteolytic enzyme, brome-

lain, which can constitute nearly half the measured

protein in the fruit. Much higher concentrations of

the basic isoenzyme (the fruit form is acidic) exist in

the stem. Stem bromelin is commercially extracted

and sold, as a buff-colored powder, slightly soluble

in water and practically insoluble in alcohol, chl-

oroform, and ether. Bromelin is used in the pharma-

ceutical industry for digestive and antiinflammatory

products, in the manufacture of cattle feed and to

‘chill-proof’ beer (to prevent formation of a haze of

proteinaceous material which can form when brewed

products are refrigerated). Some recent pharmaco-

logical reports indicate that bromelin may have

value in modulating tumor growth and blood coagu-

lation, as well as debridement of third-degree burns.

Commercial Farm Production

0026Modern commercial culture of pineapples is generally

capital-intensive, requiring substantial land prepar-

ation, machinery for planting, boom (fertilizer) spray

and harvesting, plus bulk equipment for cannery fruit

and/or harvester-packers for fresh market fruit.

0027By using a combination of plant hormones and

appropriate planting practices, the harvest date and

the fruit size and quality can be preset and regulated

as required. This makes modern pineapple produc-

tion function with almost clockwork precision. On

modern fresh-fruit farms a year-round cycle is main-

tained of weekly, if not daily, planting and harvesting.

Combined with modern planting machinery, modern

herbicides, and large mobile harvesting equipment,

production of 1000–2000 t of fruit per staff year is

common.

4574 PINEAPPLES