Caballero B. (ed.) Encyclopaedia of Food Science, Food Technology and Nutrition. Ten-Volume Set

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cabbage-like leaves. This forms a tasty food item

known as ‘millionaire’s salad.’ It is nourishing and

digestible, and is considered to be cooling and diuretic.

Inflorescence

0016 The inflorescence of coconut (Figure 3) is very attract-

ive in appearance and has many medicinal properties.

It is commonly used for decorations, religious func-

tions, and several cultural and traditional rituals. It

forms an ingredient of a large number of traditional

medicinal preparations. Tender inflorescence as such

is used for the preparation of many traditional food

items, which is believed to act like a nutraceutical. It is

tapped as a source of sap and is used for the production

of coconut palm wine, vinegar, jaggery, and arrack.

0017 Coconut palm wine In India and Sri Lanka, coconut

palm wine is known as ‘toddy,’ in Philippines and

Mexico as ‘tuba,’ and in Indonesia as ‘tuwak.’ It is

an alcoholic beverage obtained by the natural fermen-

tation of a sugar-containing juice from coconut palms

and is obtained by tapping the unopened inflores-

cence of the palm. The methods of tapping the coco-

nut palm are very ancient and vary from place to

place (Figure 4). The tapping process can be summar-

ized as follows. When the palm has reached the

normal bearing stage, every leaf axils produce a

spadix or inflorescence. The tapping begins when

the inflorescence is 1 month old. This unopened

flower inflorescence is prepared by slightly bruising

it by gentle tapping with a small round piece of wood

or bone (mallet). To prevent it from opening, the

inflorescence is tightly bound with fiber or coconut

leaves. When the inflorescence is nearly ready to pro-

duce juice, which is about 3 weeks, a length of about

5–8 cm is cut from the end. During the preparation,

Tender bud and leaves:

Delicious and nutritive

Mature leaves:

Feed for elephant and

cattle

Roots:

Beverage and medicine

Trunk:

Juice exudates from trunk

after cutting of it is

nutritious

Tender coconut:

Excellent beverage,

medicinal properties

Coconut pith:

Animal feed

Sprouted coconut:

Edible known as

coconut bread

Mature coconut:

Copra, oil, oil cake,

culinary preparations,

coconut milk,

coconut powder,

coconut honey,

coconut pan,

desiccated coconut,

medicines

fig0002 Figure 2 Coconut palm: the tree of life.

1466 COCONUT PALM

the inflorescence is gradually bent over, so that when

the coconut palm juice flows from the vascular

bundles, an earthen receptacle containing the crust

of microorganisms formed from the previous fermen-

tation is placed for its collection. The flow of juice

increases gradually, and the pot is changed twice

daily, at the same time shaving a thin slice from

the end of the inflorescence, tapping slightly with

the mallet, and smearing on a mixture of bruised

leaves to stimulate the flow of palm wine from the

inflorescence. When the collection of sap is over,

fermentation sets in immediately, and the sap is con-

verted into fresh coconut palm wine or sweet toddy.

This product is a milky white and effervescent liquid

(Figure 4a). Fermentation continues for few more

hours after the sap has been pooled from various

pots. The average yield of toddy per inflorescence

for a tapping period of about 1 month is 18 l. Fresh

coconut palm wine is sweet in taste and is considered

to be a high-energy health drink. It contains a con-

siderable amount of the natural antioxidant ascor-

bic acid, or vitamin C, and the amount of ethyl

alcohol is 2–5% (Table 1). When fermentation

proceeds, the nutritive value of fresh toddy and

concentration of ascorbic acid decrease, while the

concentrations of alcohol and acetic acid increase

(Table 2).

0018 Palm syrup Palm syrup is made by boiling toddy

until it is thick. It can be consumed as a beverage

after dilution with water. It is also a major ingredient

in a number of dairy products.

0019Jaggery Jaggery is a brown solid substance obtained

by boiling sweet toddy up to the crystallization point

(Figure 4a). It is used as a sweetening agent in bakeries

and is also used in the preparation of several food items

and in dairy products. The yield of jaggery from sweet

toddy is about 12–15%. Owing to its flavor, color,

taste, and nutritive value, nowadays, it is used as a

substituteforcanesugarinseveral developedcountries.

0020Fermented coconut palm wine The main ferment-

able carbohydrate in fresh coconut palm wine is su-

crose (12–15%), and a mixture of natural microflora

is used for fermentation. Isolation and culturing of

microflora have revealed the presence of Streptococ-

cus sp., Lactobacillus sp., Acetobacter sp., etc. The

main fermentation products are lactic acid, ethanol,

and acetic acid. The production of lactic acid reduces

the pH from around 7.2 to 5.5 within 8 h. Acetic acid

is produced from ethanol by Acetobacter. The low pH

results in high levels of ethanol, thus providing more

substrate for acetic acid production, and hence pro-

longed standing results in the production of acetic

acid from ethyl alcohol. The concentration of ethyl

alcohol in fermented toddy is 5.2–5.7%.

0021Different types of toddies are marketed, namely,

mineral toddy, ultra toddy, total toddy, oxy toddy,

etc. Techniques have also been developed to can

toddy. The toddy is sterilized and canned immedi-

ately, to preclude any further fermentation and thus

increasing its shelf-life to approximately 8 months.

0022Very few research studies have been conducted on

the effects of ingestion of toddy. Studies on the lipid

fig0003 Figure 3 (see color plate 38) Inflorescence.

COCONUT PALM 1467

and carbohydrate metabolism in female rats fed com-

mercially available toddy in India and its equivalent

quantity of ethyl alcohol during gestation and lacta-

tion have shown that the biochemical alterations

produced in fetuses and pups are different. The non-

ethanolic portion (congeners) of the toddy interferes

with metabolic processes and increases the ethyl

alcohol-induced toxicity.

0023 Toddy yeast Freshly fermented toddy is a favorable

medium for the propagation of baker’s yeast. Hence,

toddy is used as a source of yeast in the bread-baking

industry. Various traditional food preparations like

‘toddy bread’ or ‘kallappam’ (a preparation of rice

paste and toddy after overnight fermentation), ‘vat-

tayappam’ or round bread, etc. are very common in

coconut-growing areas.

0024Coconut vinegar Coconut vinegar (Figure 4a)is

produced throughout South Asia, particularly Sri

Lanka. It is a clear liquid with a strong acetic acid

flavor and a hint of coconut flavor. It is made from

(a)

(b)

fig0004 Figure 4 (a) Toddy tapping. (b) Toddy products.

1468 COCONUT PALM

toddy on a commercial scale. Toddy is stored in acet-

ifying vats, permitting free access to air. Acidification

usually takes about 10–14 days. The alcohol is con-

verted to acetic acid by acetic acid-producing bacteria

(Acetobacter) naturally present in toddy. Vinegar

usually contains 4–5% acetic acid.

0025 Arrack Arrack (Figure 4a) is obtained by distilling

fermented toddy and is common in many countries,

notably in the Philippines and Sri Lanka. It is also

known as coconut fenny in the Indian State of Goa. In

these regions, arrack obtained from toddy is con-

sidered to be superior to the arrack from molasses

and hence is recommended as a potential agent, even

for postnatal care.

Flower

0026 The male and female flowers are separate and are

arranged on the same inflorescence. The spadix of

a mature palm produces on average 300 female

flowers. These flowers are used in many Ayurvedic

preparations. Pollen grains also have medicinal prop-

erties. The flowers are astringent and are used in the

treatment of diabetes, dysentery, leprosy, and urinary

discharges. Opened flowers in the inflorescence pro-

vide a good source of pollen for bees.

Fruit

0027 The fruit is 25 cm or longer in length, ovoid, and

obtusely triangular in cross-section. The tough

fibrous outer husk (mesocarp) encloses a spherical

nut comprising a hard, bony shell (endocarp) within

which is a layer of fleshy meat or kernel (endosperm)

just under 1cm in thickness (Figures 5–7). The kernel

is high in oil and protein when compared with other

oil seed crops. Inside the shell is the liquid endosperm

of coconut or coconut water. If the nut is allowed to

germinate, the cavity of the fruit is filled with a

spongy mass called ‘bread.’ This bread is eaten raw

or toasted in the shell in coconut-growing regions.

Sprouting nuts are also delicious edible items. The

husks and small nuts from a variety of coconut trees

found in the Pacific are also eaten. Religiously, the

fruit plays an important role as an offering to God.

0028Husk Coconut husk is widely used in horticulture,

especially for growing orchids. Experiments have also

proved that coir pith from green fruits can be used as

feed for pigs.

0029Coir pith Coir pith is a waste product obtained

during the process of extraction of coir fiber from

the husk. It is very light, highly compressible, and

highly hygroscopic. It is used as a soil conditioner,

surface mulch/rooting medium and as a desiccant.

Composted coir pith is an excellent organic manure

for indoor plants as well as for horticulture crops.

0030Shell Tarry oil prepared from the shell of the nut is

used externally for the treatment of ringworm. It is

also used to tenderize meat while cooking. It can also

be made into attractive vessels, spoons, flower vases,

etc. In rubber-growing regions, it is used for collecting

latex in plantations. Being a natural product, now-

adays, it is considered to be the best natural alterna-

tive for food packing.

0031Kernel Coconut kernel is consumed in the daily diet

as a culinary ingredient in several parts of the world.

It is either used in the normal state or ground to a

paste. Tender coconut kernel is very delicate and is a

refreshing and high-energy item. Several preparations

with tender coconut kernel are popular in the

coconut-growing areas of the world. Raw coconut

kernel and fried coconut kernel are delicious items

in several parts of the world and are used for several

Ayurvedic preparations.

0032Factors such as the variety of the palm, stages of

maturity of the nut, and conditions of growth deter-

mine the composition of the kernel. The moisture,

protein, and ash content of the kernel decreases as

the nut matures, whereas the fat content increases.

0033Since the coconut kernel contains 40% oil on aver-

age, the general notion is that its consumption could

elevate cholesterol levels. Besides coconut oil, the

tbl0001 Table 1 Composition and specific gravity of fresh coconut

palm wine

Ethanol 2–5 ml per 100 ml

Ascorbic acid 16–30 mg per 100 ml (little change

during fermentation)

Total solids 15.2–19.7 g per 100 ml

Sucrose 12.3–17.4 g per 100 ml

Ash 0.11–0.41 g per 100 ml

Protein (N  6.25) 0.23–0.32 g per 100 ml

Specific gravity at 29



C 1.058–1.077

tbl0002 Table 2 Composition and specific gravity of 12-h-fermented

coconut palm wine

Ethanol 5–5.7%

Acidity (as acetic) 0.32–0.67%

Water 90.3–96.3%

Protein 0.2%

Ether extractives 0.1%

Carbohydrates 1.3%

Mineral matter 0.01%

Calcium <0.01%

Phosphorus 0.01%

Vitamin B

<5 IU per 100 ml

Specific gravity at 29



C 0.998–1.033

COCONUT PALM 1469

kernel contains 3.6% dietary fiber (Table 3). Re-

search studies undertaken in rats at the University of

Kerala have strongly indicated a significant hypolipi-

demic effect of the neutral detergent fiber isolated

from coconut. This effect is attributed to the presence

of a hemicellulose component. Proteins isolated from

coconut kernel have also been found to have a lipid-

lowering effect in experimental animals. This benefi-

cial effect of the kernel protein is attributed to its very

low lysine/arginine ratio (2.13% lysine and 24.5%

arginine). Recent reports have shown that feeding

coconut kernel along with coconut oil in human vol-

unteers reduced the total serum cholesterol and low-

density lipoprotein-C (LDL-C) when compared with

feeding coconut oil alone. Neutral detergent fiber

extracted from coconut has been shown to decrease

the levels of lipids and lipid peroxides in rats fed a

fat-rich diet.

Mesocarp

Endocarp

Kernel

fig0005 Figure 5 Vertical section: coconut.

fig0006 Figure 6 Vertical section: tender coconut.

1470 COCONUT PALM

0034 Desiccated coconut Desiccated coconut is the disin-

tegrated and dehydrated coconut kernel or pulp

largely comprising the white portion of the kernel,

after removing the brown testa or parings. It is re-

ferred to as ‘farane de coco’ in France. The process of

preparation involves initial sterilization by washing in

boiling water, followed by disintegrating or shredding

and ultimately by drying at 60–75



C to a moisture

level of less than 2.5%. Desiccated coconut was first

manufactured from imported nuts in England and in

the USA in the early 1880s. It is pure white in color,

crisp, and has a fresh taste. It contains 68–72% oil

and has a nitrogen content of around 1.05%. The

chief protein is globulin, the sugar present is mainly

sucrose (6–7%), and the crude fiber amounts to 4%.

0035 Coconut oil is important in the confectionery and

bakery industry. It is mainly used in biscuits, confec-

tionery, bakery, and other food industries, and also

for household purposes in countries where coconut is

not grown.

0036Byproducts of manufacture of desiccated coconut

(brown testa or parings) The parings, which, under

normal working conditions, amount to 12–15% of

the kernel, are dried and pressed for oil (yield 55%).

Parings oil differs somewhat in composition from

ordinary coconut oil. Its iodine value ranges from

19 to 25, its saponification value ranges from 237 to

244, and its acid value is higher than that of commer-

cial coconut oil. Parings oil is mostly used for soap-

making.

0037Coconut milk Coconut milk is the cold aqueous

extract of coconut kernel (Figure 8) and is used in

cooking. Techniques have been developed to preserve

coconut milk, and so now it is available commer-

cially. Various techniques have also been developed

to manufacture coconut cream and spray-dried coco-

nut milk powder.

0038Coconut milk after bottling can be used as a substi-

tute for cows’ milk. In Philippines, sugar and citric

acid are added to coconut milk to produce coconut

syrup, which is used in the confectionery. Coconut

honey is also prepared from coconut milk after the

addition of jaggery and glucose. This has a nutty

flavor and can be used as a substitute for honey.

0039Copra Dried or dehydrated coconut is called copra

(Figure 8). On average, 1000 nuts will produce about

180 kg of copra. Copra is used as a culinary ingredi-

ent and also for the production of oil. Copra process-

ing is a widespread activity involving dehusking,

splitting the nuts into two equal halves, and sun

tbl0003 Table 3 Composition of fresh coconut kernel

Water 36.3 ml per 100 g

Protein 4.5 g per 100 g

Fat 41.6 g per 100 g

Carbohydrates 13.0 g per 100 g

Fiber 3.6 g per 100 g

Minerals 1.0 g per 100 g

Among the minerals present:

Ca 10 mg per 100 g

P 24 mg per 100 g

Fe 1.7 mg per 100 g

fig0007 Figure 7 Dehusked coconut.

COCONUT PALM 1471

drying. Sun drying takes about 4–7 days, depending

on the sunshine, to dry copra to the desired moisture

level (below 6%). Improved drying methods to

reduce the duration of drying include smoke drying

and hot-air drying. Smoke drying, requiring a drying

time of 36 h, and hot-air drying reduce the contamin-

ation of copra and fungal attack, thus improving the

quality of the oil.

0040 Feeding of copra to pigs and poultry has produced

good results, but it is an expensive animal feed. As the

fat in copra contains only small amounts of unsatur-

ated fatty acids, its consumption leads to firm body

fat and good flavor.

0041 Coconut oil Coconut oil (Figure 8) constitutes the

major commercial product of coconut. Coconut oil is

used as a cooking fat, hair oil, body oil, and industrial

oil. Refined coconut oil is prepared exclusively for

industrial purposes and is widely used in the manu-

facture of biscuits, chocolates, icecreams, margarine,

and confectionery items. It is also used for the manu-

facture of paints and pharmaceutical agents. Desir-

able properties such as a low melting point, resistance

to rancidity, pleasant flavor, and easy digestibility

make it an ideal ingredient in the food industry. Co-

conut oil is a source of many oleo chemicals such as

fatty acids, methyl esters, and fatty alcohol. For

cooking and toiletry purposes, it is commonly used

in the form of filtered coconut oil. Virgin coconut oil,

which is a high-quality oil, is prepared from the milk

extracted from the raw kernel. This type of coconut

oil is most suitable as a massage oil for babies.

0042Coconut oil is a rich source of saturated fatty acids,

and short- and medium-chain fatty acids account

for 70% of these fatty acids (Table 4). It has a

low content of unsaturated fatty acids with a negli-

gible content of both n:6 and n:3 polyunsaturated

fatty acids and a low n:6/n:3 ratio (< 4). The highly

resistant nature of coconut oil to oxidative rancidity

is attributed to its high concentration of saturated fat

and low unsaturated fatty acids. This quality makes it

suitable for storage without deterioration.

0043Copra, which is obtained by drying coconuts, is the

source of coconut oil. Power-driven rotaries and ex-

pellers are used for extracting oil from copra. This oil

extraction is immediately followed by the separation

of cake residue and mucilage by filtering or by

settling.

0044Because of the unique qualities of lauric acid (C:12)

present, coconut oil is widely used in soaps and

tbl0004Table 4 Fatty acid profile of coconut oil

Commonname Fatty acid Percentage

Caproic acid 6:0 0.2–0.5

Caprylic acid 8:0 5.4–9.5

Capric acid 10:0 4.5–9.7

Lauric acid 12:0 44.1–51

Myristic acid 14:0 13.1–18.5

Palmitic acid 16:0 7.5–10.5

Stearic acid 18:0 1.0–3.2

Arachidic acid 20:0 0.2–1.5

Oleic acid 18:1n-9 5.0–8.2

Linoleic acid 18:2n-6 1.0–2.6

fig0008 Figure 8 Coconut products.

1472 COCONUT PALM

cosmetic manufacturing industries. Lauric acid is

known to possess antiviral, antibacterial, and anti-

protozoal qualities. It is converted to the monoglycer-

ide monolaurin in the human or animal body.

Monolaurin is antiviral, antibacterial, and antiproto-

zoal. Reports indicate that monolaurin is capable of

destroying lipid-coated viruses such as HIV, herpes,

cytomegalovirus, influenza, various pathological bac-

teria, including Listeria monocytogenes and Helico-

bactor pylori, and protozoa such as Giardia lamblia.

It is synthesized in babies from the lauric acid of

mother’s milk. Capric acid, another fatty acid found

in coconut, also has antimicrobial activities.

0045 Tocopherols are the natural antioxidants present

in coconut oil. The volatile flavor constituent of

crude coconut oil includes ketones, lactones and d-

lactones of which dL

to dC

with undecan-2-1 as

the major component at 290 p.p.m. and d-decalac-

tone as the major lactone component at 97 p.p.m.

The flavor and aroma of coconut oil are attributed

to d-octalactone. Ketones are derived from the micro-

biological dissociation of fatty acids. The digestibility

coefficient of coconut oil is higher (with 91.0% as-

similable glycerides) than any other fat, including

butter, and so it is digested more rapidly than any

other fats. This easy digestibility makes it an essential

ingredient for many ghee substitutes.

0046 The consumption of saturated oil could hasten the

onset of cardiac problems, as suggested by certain

research studies. Coconut oil, being a saturated oil,

caused concern that adversely affected the prospects

of the coconut industry. The major fatty acids of

coconut oil are medium-chain fatty acids. A shorter

chain length allows fatty acids to be metabolized

without the use of a carnitine transport system.

Since the short- and medium-chain fatty acids can

be rapidly oxidized, they are less conducive to fat

deposits compared with long-chain fatty acids. Early

studies conducted in experimental animals fed a syn-

thetic diet containing coconut oil as the source of fat

have shown it to be atherogenic, since it is deficient in

essential fatty acids. Essential fatty acid deficiency is

known to facilitate the development of atheroscler-

osis. But under normal conditions, the possibility of

essential fatty acid deficiency as such is quite remote,

since their presence in other food items will offset any

deficiency in coconut oil. Thus, the increase in lipo-

genesis observed in earlier studies was due to the

faulty design of the experiments. Feeding coconut

oil at normal levels along with other fats adequately

supplemented with linoleic acid renders coconut oil

neutral in terms of atherogenecity. Epidemiological

studies also support this. The University of Kerala

conducted a study in 64 volunteers and found no

statistically significant alterations in the serum total

cholesterol, high-density lipoprotein (HDL) choles-

terol, LDL cholesterol, HDL-C/total cholesterol

ratio, LDL-C/total cholesterol ratio, and triglycerides

from the baseline values. Feeding coconut oil results

in an increase in HDL cholesterol.

0047Recent studies have shown that the presence of

natural coconut fat in the diet leads to a normaliza-

tion of body lipids, protects alcohol damage to the

liver, and improves the immune system’s antiinflam-

matory response.

0048Coconut oil is needed for the good absorption of

fat and calcium from infant formulas. Hence, it has

been recommended in infant formulas.

Coconut Cake

0049This is the residue left after the extraction of oil from

copra and is widely used as cattle feed (Figure 8). The

residual oil in the cake can be extracted by the process

of solvent extraction, and the resulting defatted cake,

containing less than 1% oil, is used in cattle-feed

manufacture. The extracted residual oil is largely

used for industrial purposes.

0050Uses of coconut cake Coconut cake, which is com-

monly used as a cattle and poultry feed, is soaked in

water prior to feeding. Since it imparts a firm texture

to butter and provides harder body fat, it is useful for

dairy and fattening cattle, respectively. Field and la-

boratory investigations have shown that coconut

cake can be used as a fertilizer (Table 5). Coconut

cake is rather rich in fiber, and hence, its inclusion in

pig diets is restricted. The maximum safe quantity of

coconut cake with dairy cows is 1.5– 2 kg daily; feed-

ing larger quantities may result in tallowy butter. Beef

cattle can consume much more without any impair-

ment in carcass quality.

0051Coconut flour This is essentially coconut cake in a

more attractive and edible form. It is prepared by

extracting oil from desiccated coconut, drying, and

grinding the residue to a suitable degree of fitness. Its

tbl0005Table 5 Composition of coconut cake after removing oil by the

expeller method and solvent-extraction method

Composition Methodofextraction

Expeller (%) Solvent extraction (%)

Moisture 7.0 8.9

Fat 6.7 2.4

Protein 21.2 21.4

(N  6.25)

Nitrogen-free 47.4 47.4

Extract

Fiber 11.2 13.3

Mineral matter 6.5 6.6

COCONUT PALM 1473

keeping qualities are not good, and it may be expen-

sive.

0052 Coconut water This is the liquid endosperm of coco-

nut (Figure 9). The composition of coconut water

changes during the course of ripening of the fruits

and in germination. The concentration of total solids

during the initial days is about 2.5 g per 100 ml. This

increases gradually as the nut ripens, reaches a max-

imum of about 6 g per 100 ml at about the seventh

month, and then declines. During germination, water

completely disappears.

0053 Sugars are the most important constituent. During

the early days, only inverted sugars are present, and

their concentration in the coconut water increases to

a maximum by the fifth and sixth month. Thereafter,

the level of sucrose rises, though the concentration of

the total sugars declines rapidly, until its content

reaches 2 g per 100 ml approximately.

0054 Tender coconut water is commonly consumed as a

beverage. It is enriched with various minerals such as

potassium, phosphorus, magnesium, sulfur, chlorine,

sodium, calcium, copper, iron, etc. Various proteins

and amino acids such as arginine, cystine, alanine,

etc. and the B vitamins are also present. Moreover, it

is recommended as a useful alternative to glucose

saline in cases of gastroenteritis and urinary diseases.

It has a caloric value of 0.073 kJ per 100 g, potassium

constitutes the principal inorganic constituent, and

malic acid is the predominant organic acid (Table 6).

0055 Experimental studies have indicated the presence

of certain unidentified substances or combination of

substances in coconut water that are capable of indu-

cing rapid proliferative changes in plant tissues. Nate-

de-coco is a gelatinous delicacy formed by the action

of the microorganism Acetobactor xylinium in the

culture medium of coconut water. Coconut water is

also an excellent medium for the production of pro-

tein foods using a culture of the food yeast Sacchar-

omyces fragilis.

0056A patent granted by the UK to the FAO involving a

new technology permits manufacturers to bottle bio-

logically pure and tasty coconut water that is rich in

salts, sugars, and vitamins, as used by athletics. This

technology employs a cold sterilization processing

method that prevents the loss of flavor and other

nutritional characteristics. It is also used in medicinal

preparations. In the Ayurvedic ointment ‘ilaneer-

kuzhmbu’ (from the Sanskrit terms ‘ilaneer,’ meaning

tender coconut water, and ‘kuzhambu,’ meaning

fig0009 Figure 9 Tender coconut.

tbl0006Table 6 Composition of ascorbic acid and B vitamins in

coconut water

Vitamin Amount

Ascorbic acid 2.2–3.7 mg per 100 ml

Nicotinic acid 0.64 mgml

1

Pantothenic acid 0.52 mgml

1

Biotin 0.02 mgml

1

Riboflavin <0.01 mgml

1

Folic acid 0.003 mgml

1

Thiamine Trace

Pyridoxine Trace

1474 COCONUT PALM

paste) for the eye, coconut water is used as the princi-

pal ingredient.

0057 Coconut water increases the blood circulation in

the kidneys and causes profuse diuresis. It is also a

urinary antiseptic and eliminates poisons through the

kidneys in case of mineral poisoning.

0058 Coconut water vinegar Despite its low sugar con-

tent, coconut water is considered to be a good base

for vinegar. For this, coconut water is allowed to

ferment for 7 days after adding sugar, as a result of

which sugar is converted to alcohol.

Heart of the Palm

0059 In some places, the heart of the palm is used raw or

boiled for use in salads.

See also: Alcohol: Properties and Determination; Amino

Acids: Properties and Occurrence; Antioxidants:

Synthetic Antioxidants; Biotin: Properties and

Determination; Fats: Digestion, Absorption, and

Transport; Fatty Acids: Dietary Importance; HIV Disease

and Nutrition; Protein: Food Sources; Sugar Alcohols;

Wines: Production of Table Wines; Yeasts