Caballero B. (ed.) Encyclopaedia of Food Science, Food Technology and Nutrition. Ten-Volume Set

Подождите немного. Документ загружается.

shown in Figure 4 is not fully in balance. The choc-

olate industry needs a certain quantity of cocoa butter

and this implies that a fixed quantity of cocoa powder

is also produced. However, the demand for cocoa

powder does not always meet this volume. As a result,

the price of cocoa butter is usually substantially

higher than that of cocoa powder. The relatively

high price of cocoa butter has made it attractive to

lipid chemists to look for cheaper fats which could

replace cocoa butter. This is not easy, as cocoa butter

has unique properties, especially hardness and

melting behavior. In the course of time, cocoa butter

substitutes (CBSs) were developed, mostly based on

palm kernel fat. These are used in combination with

cocoa powder for manufacturing imitation chocolate,

or coatings (for biscuits, cakes, icecream, etc). Re-

cently, ways have been found to separate the desired

triacylglycerols from other fats and to put them to-

gether in the right proportion, thus obtaining a fat

that closely resembles cocoa butter. Such a fat is called

a cocoa butter equivalent (CBE) and can replace

cocoa butter in chocolate (Figure 5).

Quality Aspects

0047 Cocoa powder is sold in retail packages to con-

sumers. However, most cocoa powder reaches the

consumer as a color and flavor in other products,

like dessert powders, sterilized chocolate milk, choc-

olate cake, icecream, etc. Most of the cocoa powder

produced is sold as an ingredient to other food manu-

facturers. Such a product should have the necessary

quality aspects to meet the needs of the user,

regarding microbiology, consistency, purity, and

other factors. In the case of cocoa powder this can

only be fulfilled when maintaining strict good manu-

facturing practices, the reason being that there are a

number of problems which put cocoa powder in a

high-risk category:

0048Cocoa beans undergo a fermentation process,

which leaves very high bacteria counts on the

bean shell.

0049During fermentation the temperature goes up to



C, which leaves thermoresistant spores on the

bean. These may interfere with the sterilization

process of chocolate milk.

0050After fermentation, the cocoa beans are dried in the

open air, allowing contamination with bird drop-

pings. Salmonella bacteria can thus be found on

crude cocoa beans.

0051Bacteria which are present in cocoa mass are sur-

rounded by fat during the grinding process. The fat

gives them good protection and it has been shown

that Salmonella can live for months in chocolate.

Also, the bacteria will be protected in the stomach

against its natural acidity when chocolate is eaten.

0052Cocoa powder is used in many different foodstuffs,

made with different manufacturing processes, re-

quiring different shelf-lives, and having different

moisture contents. As the cocoa manufacturer

does not always know how the powder will be

used, all the product must meet the strictest hygiene

specifications. (See Spoilage: Bacterial Spoilage.)

Environment

0053The cocoa-processing industry is not one of the major

polluters of the environment. The raw materials and

the products are simply too expensive to be discarded.

Of course, there are the general problems of each

factory, such as noise and high, ugly buildings. How

these can be avoided is well known and is taken into

consideration when new chocolate factories are built.

The main problem comes from the smell of exhaust

gases – air blown through the grinding systems and

combustion gas from the roasters. These gases also

contain dust. To collect the dust, cyclones are used on

a large scale in the cocoa industry. Biological filters

are being tested for the removal of odors but they

have not been completely successful. The present

method of solving the problem is to build high chim-

neys. Cocoa bean-processing gives one waste product

– the shell, about 10% of the weight of the beans.

This loose material is usually ground to reduce its

volume and sold to fertilizer or cattle feed manufac-

turers. Burning the shell could be worthwhile when

energy costs are high, but introduces the problem of

removing large quantities of dust from the combus-

tion gas.

Production of Cocoa Mass

0054All cocoa beans are initially turned into cocoa mass.

The necessary processes are illustrated in Figure 6.

The word ‘nib’ is used in all languages to indicate the

CBS

Coating

Cocoa powder

Cocoa butter

Cocoa massCocoa beans

CBE

Chocolate

fig0005 Figure 5 The use of alternative fats to cocoa butter. CBS, cocoa

butter substitute; CBE, cocoa butter equivalent. Reproduced from

Cocoa: Production, Products and Uses. Encyclopaedia of Food

Science, Food Technology and Nutrition, Macrae R, Robinson RK

and Sadler MJ (eds), 1993, Academic Press.

1456 COCOA/Production, Products, and Use

broken pieces of the kernel of the cocoa bean. Cocoa

mass contains approximately 55% cocoa butter. The

fat is liquid after the roasting and grinding proced-

ures, which make the whole mass liquid. It can be

pumped and transported in tank lorries.

0055 Cleaning Cocoa beans, from silo storage or directly

from their burlap bags, first pass through cleaning

machines – screens, magnets and controlled air

streams. Extraneous materials removed include

sticks, stones, string, and metal objects.

0056 Blending Substantial variety in flavor exists among

cocoa beans from different countries. It is seldom that

one batch of beans will be used exclusively in a for-

mula. One reason is that blending provides the op-

portunity to obtain a certain flavor. Another reason

stems from the inconsistency of cocoa beans in flavor

and other quality aspects. Batches of cocoa beans

show variations from one locality to another, due

to differences in the weather during growth and

ripening, from differences in fermentation and other

variations in processing conditions. Blending will

contribute to uniformity.

0057 Thermal pretreatment An important quality aspect

in cocoa bean processing is removal of the cocoa shell.

The shell, as the covering of the kernel, is always

greatly polluted with sand, high bacteria counts, and

pesticide residues. Depending on the fermentation,

the shell often sticks to the kernel, which prevents

easy removal. Recently machines have been intro-

duced which loosen the shells by means of a thermal

shock. This is achieved with hot air, saturated steam,

or infrared radiation.

0058Breaking and fanning To remove the shell, the

beans are first broken between adjustable toothed

rollers. The broken pieces are subsequently separated

in fractions by sieving. Each fraction is treated with a

stream of air which carries away the light shell pieces.

This breaking and fanning process is often referred to

as ‘winnowing.’

0059Roasting The roasting process at 120–140



Cis

needed for the development of the typical flavor of

cocoa. Using modern technology, cocoas can be

roasted at different particle sizes, such as whole

beans, or as liquid cocoa mass, which is produced

by a fine grinding of cocoa and liquefying within its

own fat. The roasting of smaller particles has the

advantages of better controlled roasting, partial

exhaustion of abundant acetic acid, and reduced

roasting time (beans take about 30 min, nibs 12 min,

mass 2 min). The type of roasting technique may also

influence microbiological aspects. The bacteria pre-

sent are on the shell and by removing the shell first the

material enters the roasting (¼ sterilization) process

with a lower initial bacteria count.

0060Grinding and refining The next step is grinding

of the cocoa nib particles. The nib consists of 55%

cocoa butter and 45% solid material coming from the

plant cells. The latter must be ground very finely.

When eating chocolate or drinking chocolate milk,

no grittiness should be felt in the mouth. For both

cocoa powder and chocolate it is important that the

final particle size distribution is narrow. This facili-

tates the pressing operation and improves the rheo-

logical properties of chocolate. The desired fineness

(15–70 mm) and particle size distribution are reached

in several successive grinding steps. Pregrinding of the

large and hard nib particles is done in disk mills,

hammer mills, or pin mills. To reach the ultimate

fineness, mass for pressing is refined in modern ver-

sions of the triple stone mill, or in vertical ball mills

(attrittors). In the chocolate industry, roller mills with

five rolls are most commonly used for refining the

mass. These are also used to grind the chocolate

mass, after adding preground sugar and milk powder.

(See Milling: Characteristics of Milled Products.)

0061Types Cocoa mass may be used for the production

of chocolate, or for pressing, i.e., in the production of

cocoa butter and cocoa powder. The difference be-

tween these two types of cocoa mass are the bean

Cocoa beans

Cleaning

Blending

Thermal pretreatment

Breaking and fanning

Roasting

Cocoa shellCocoa nib

Grinding

Cocoa mass

fig0006 Figure 6 The production of cocoa mass. Reproduced from

Cocoa: Production, Products and Uses. Encyclopaedia of Food

Science, Food Technology and Nutrition, Macrae R, Robinson RK

and Sadler MJ (eds), 1993, Academic Press.

COCOA/Production, Products, and Use 1457

blend, fineness, and microbiological condition,

among others.

0062 For chocolate, many manufacturers prefer beans

from Ghana and Nigeria on account of their desirable

flavor attributes. For the highest qualities, South

American so-called flavor beans may also be added

to the blend.

0063 Although for all purposes mass needs to be com-

pletely safe from the bacteriological point of view,

cocoa powder requires, moreover, that thermoresis-

tant spores are absent. This condition must already

have been reached in the mass, which tolerates higher

temperatures than cocoa powder.

0064 Mass for pressing is also already alkalized. This

process will be discussed below.

0065 Packaging and shelf-life When cocoa mass has to be

stored or transported, it is usually packed into 30-kg

cardboard boxes with a plastic liner or bag inside. In

Europe and the USA most of the transport takes place

in liquid form.

0066 Cocoa mass has a very good shelf-life. The solid

particles are protected by a fat with a high degree of

saturation. Moreover, cocoa contains powerful nat-

ural antioxidants. These conditions also apply to

cocoa beans. If the moisture content of the beans is

well under control, their shelf-life will be several

years. (See Antioxidants: Natural Antioxidants.)

0067 Production of cocoa butter Cocoa mass contains

55% cocoa butter. Part of this can be extracted by

mechanical pressing. The solids which stay in the

press contain 22% fat, or even as low as 10%.

These press cakes are ground to cocoa powder. The

cocoa butter is filtered and part of it is deodorized.

The production process is illustrated in Figure 7.

0068Pressing The cocoa mass is pumped to horizontal

hydraulic presses, with pots lined up face to face, each

equipped with very fine mesh metal filter screens.

When all the pots are filled with mass at a tempera-

ture of 90



C, the hydraulic ram is set in motion and

the cocoa butter begins to flow through the screens on

both sides of each pot. The pressure then increases to

400 bars. The hard cocoa cakes remaining are then

discharged from the press. The cocoa butter collected

from the press is not ‘clean,’ having carried with it a

small amount of tiny nonfat particles. It is therefore

filtered through filter paper.

0069Deodorization and blending Crude cocoa butter has

a strong flavor. This is desirable in dark chocolate.

However, in milk chocolate much more cocoa butter

is used and the cocoa flavor would become too

strong, suppressing the milk flavor. Thus, buyers are

stipulating a cocoa butter with a weak flavor, or no

flavor at all. This is reached by steam deodorization

of the cocoa butter and blending crude and deodor-

ized butter to the desired flavor. This is controlled by

sensory testing, or a chemical method, the determin-

ation of the flavor profile. Crude cocoa butter, being a

natural product, has a rather inconsistent flavor

strength. Even if crude cocoa butter is asked for,

some blending with deodorized butter is performed

Cocoa beans

Cocoa shellCocoa nib

Cocoa mass

Pressing

Cocoa butter

Deodorizing

Deodorized

butter

Blending

Cocoa butter

Crude

butter

Press cake

fig0007 Figure 7 The production of cocoa butter. Reproduced from Cocoa: Production, Products and Uses. Encyclopaedia of Food Science,

Food Technology and Nutrition, Macrae R, Robinson RK and Sadler MJ (eds), 1993, Academic Press.

1458 COCOA/Production, Products, and Use

to standardize the flavor. (See Sensory Evaluation:

Taste.)

0070 Properties Cocoa butter is one of the most expen-

sive natural fats. This is due to its unique melting

behavior. Cocoa butter has a much narrower melting

range than any other fat. This quality is fundamental

to chocolate. Chocolate should be hard – even in hot

weather – and it should not stick to the fingers. At

room temperature, about 70% of the triacylglycerols

in cocoa butter are solid. On eating, the cocoa butter

in the chocolate should melt completely in the mouth

and cause a pleasant taste sensation due to the con-

sumed melting enthalpy. The relatively narrow

melting range of cocoa butter is important in the

production of chocolate. When the chocolate is

cooled and the fat solidifies, a considerable decrease

in volume takes place. This contraction makes it easy

to release chocolate articles from their molds.

0071 Types The above discussion has been restricted to

the processing of sound cocoa beans, from which the

shell has been properly removed. The fat derived from

this raw material is called prime pure pressed cocoa

butter. In practice, not all cocoa beans that are har-

vested are of a good quality. Even if the beans are

unripe, moldy, or smoky, they contain a fat that can

be made fully fit for human consumption by refining.

When processing subgrade cocoa beans, it is difficult

to remove their shells. Such beans are processed

whole in continuous expeller presses. The resulting

press cake still holds another 10% of fat, which can

be obtained by solvent extraction. The remaining

solids are, of course, not edible and are best put

back on the land as a fertilizer. Although the fat will

be edible after refining, the quality is inferior to the

prime pure pressed butter. It is less hard and shows a

smaller volume contraction. The following types of

subgrade cocoa fat are recognized by the Codex

Alimentarius:

0072Expeller cocoa butter: the fat extracted by means

of mechanical pressing from material which has

approximately the composition of whole cocoa

beans.

0073Solvent-extracted cocoa butter: the fat obtained

from cocoa beans or cocoa waste materials by

means of extraction with permitted solvents.

0074Refined cocoa butter: any of the fats obtained in

the ways mentioned above and afterwards fully

refined according to the standard processing tech-

niques for edible oils and fats.

0075Cocoa fat: fat extracted from waste materials and

having a quality below certain standards.

The above processing options are summarized in

Figure 8.

0076Packaging, transport, and shelf-life Much like

cocoa mass, cocoa butter is packed in 30-kg slabs or

transported and stored in a liquid form. The shelf-life

Cocoa beans

Good

grade

Sub-

grade

Nib

Shell

Hydraulic

pressing

Cocoa

powder

Expeller pressing

Press

cake

Crude

butter

Deodorizing

Solvent

extraction

Crude

butter

Defatted

solids

Cocoa

fat

Refining

Cocoa

butter

Expeller

butter

Refined

butter

Refined

cocoa fat

Wastes

Solvent

extraction

EDIBLE NONEDIBLE

fig0008 Figure 8 Types of cocoa butter. Reproduced from Cocoa: Production, Products and Uses. Encyclopaedia of Food Science, Food Tech-

nology and Nutrition, Macrae R, Robinson RK and Sadler MJ (eds), 1993, Academic Press.

COCOA/Production, Products, and Use 1459

of cocoa butter is good, due to its high degree of

saturation, and the shelf-life of solid cocoa butter is

several months to a year, if properly packed and

stored.

Production of Cocoa Powder

0077 The press cakes are ground to powder, which is

packed after complete cooling. The alkalizing process

can be used to create many types of cocoa powder

with differing colors. The production of cocoa

powder is shown in Figure 9.

0078 Alkalizing The alkalizing process was invented in

the first half of the 19th century in the Netherlands.

It improves the quality of cocoa powder in two ways:

0079 It takes away the slightly acid taste of cocoa.

0080 It makes the color darker. This is due to condensa-

tion reactions forming high-molecular-weight

colored products. Careful control of the reactions

can lead to different shades of color: orange, red,

brown, and even black is possible.

0081Alkalizing consists of treating the cocoa with a

solution of an alkali, mostly potash. Legally, the max-

imum amount of potash which may be used is 3%,

calculated on the nib. The treatment can be per-

formed with the nib, mass, press cake, or powder.

The specific color is reached by choice of the reaction

conditions: temperature, time, amount and concen-

tration of the alkaline solution, and other factors.

0082Grinding, cooling, and blending of cocoa cake The

press cakes are broken and then ground to powder in

pin or other mills. The cocoa powder leaves the mill

hot. It should be completely cooled before packing,

otherwise the setting fat will turn it into hard lumps

inside the package.

0083Blending of pieces of broken cake before grinding

allows standardization of the color, or the prepar-

ation of blends with intermediate colors.

0084Types Variations in the two main processes lead to

the formation of hundreds of different types of cocoa

powder. The pressing can be performed to a fat con-

tent in the cake of 20% (giving cocoa powder) or to

10% (giving low-fat cocoa powder), while the alka-

lizing process creates many different colors. Cocoa

powder with 20% fat is the common household

type. The food industry uses mostly low-fat cocoa

powder (10%), in many different colors.

0085For use in certain cocoa-flavored products, some

special types of cocoa powder have been developed.

Lecithinated cocoa powder contains 5% of soya leci-

thin. Owing to its fat content, cocoa powder is diffi-

cult to wet and to disperse in water. Even in hot water

or milk, lumps will be formed easily. Lecithin can

improve these properties by its action as a wetting

agent. Five percent of soya lecithin is intensively

mixed with cocoa powder and the resulting lecithi-

nated powder is agglomerated with sugar. This gives

so-called instant cocoa, which can be put directly into

cold milk. (See Emulsifiers: Organic Emulsifiers.)

0086Stabilized cocoa powder contains about 2% carra-

geenan. This is a polysaccharide derived from sea-

weed. It prevents the cocoa powder from settling in

sterilized chocolate milk. (See Stabilizers: Types and

Function.)

0087Packaging, transport, and shelf-life Paper or tin

retail packaging is well known. For bulk deliveries,

25-kg (or 50-lb) multiple paper bags are commonly

used. Loose bulk delivery or storage of cocoa powder

is difficult. The fat-containing fine powder tends to

stick and to block pipelines for pneumatic transport.

Only large users, in cooperation with large suppliers,

have developed workable bulk systems. The shelf-life

of cocoa powder is excellent. Even after 10 years the

Cocoa beans

Cocoa nib

Cocoa mass

Roasting

Grinding

alkalizing

Pressing

Cocoa

butter

Press

cake

Grinding

Cooling

Blending

Retail sales

Industrial use

+ Stabilizer

Cocoa powder

Lecithinated

cocoa powder

Stabilized

cocoa powder

+ Lecithin

fig0009 Figure 9 The production of cocoa powder. Reproduced from

Cocoa: Production, Products and Uses. Encyclopaedia of Food

Science, Food Technology and Nutrition, Macrae R, Robinson RK

and Sadler MJ (eds), 1993, Academic Press.

1460 COCOA/Production, Products, and Use

flavor is good when packed in air- and moisture-proof

containers. Only some fading of the color may be

noticed, comparable with fat bloom on chocolate.

This disappears when the cocoa is used in milk.

Production of Chocolate

0088 The major ingredient of chocolate is cocoa mass,

which is mixed with sugar and, in the case of milk

chocolate, also with milk powder. The conching pro-

cess then follows, which is very important for the

development of the full chocolate flavor. Melted

cocoa butter is added, the chocolate mass becomes

liquid, and is cooled, tempered, and poured into

molds to form chocolate products (Figure 10).

0089 Mixing of ingredients and refining Sugar, cocoa

mass, and milk powder are intensively mixed,

forming a dry powder. This powder is preground in

various types of mills and then finely ground in a five-

roll roller refiner. Small operators also use vertical

ball mills. The sizes of particles in chocolate are

between 15 and 70 mm.

0090 Conching The flavor which has been formed during

roasting is rounded off into the typical chocolate

flavor by the conching process. This process also

contributes to the physical properties of the choc-

olate, and hence its eating characteristics. Conching

is a mechanical treatment of the chocolate mass in

large containers fitted with rollers, paddles, or a var-

iety of other devices. Chemical and physical changes

take place under the influence of air which is brought

into the mass, at a temperature of about 60



C, and of

rubbing and shearing forces. The result is the forma-

tion or liberation of flavor components which give the

delicate chocolate note. The chemistry of this process

is largely unknown. Physically the dry, crumbled mass

is converted into a flowable liquid suspension. The

sharp edges of the sugar particles are rounded off,

which will give the chocolate a smooth feeling in the

mouth.

0091Three phases can be distinguished in conching:

0092Dry phase: the powdered chocolate mass loses

moisture and less desirable volatile flavor com-

ponents like acetic acid.

0093Pasty phase: during dry conching the mass be-

comes pasty. Flavor development takes place

under the influence of shearing forces.

0094Liquid phase: the last component, cocoa butter, is

added. The chocolate mass becomes liquid.

Homogenizing takes place under the influence of

intensive stirring and shearing.

0095The final degree of viscosity is very important: the

melted chocolate must be sufficiently thin to fill all

cavities of the molds. The melted cocoa butter is the

liquid phase. However, this is the most expensive

component of chocolate. A substantial saving of

butter can be obtained by using an emulsifier. Soya

lecithin (0.3%) is the most commonly used emulsifier

which is added during the third conching phase.

0096A special way to produce milk chocolate is from

crumb. The sugar and cocoa mass are brought into

liquid milk and the whole is dried. During the lengthy

drying a caramel flavor is developed. Dry milk choc-

olate crumb has a good shelf-life, due to the natural

antioxidants of cocoa. To make chocolate, only cocoa

butter has to be added. Crumb is much used in

the UK.

Cooling and Tempering

0097Critical to the appearance, gloss, shelf-life, and

mouth feel of chocolate is the way it is cooled before

solidifying in molds. Cocoa butter triacylglycerides

can set in several polymorphic forms. Some are un-

stable and recrystallization into the stable form will

occur after some hours or days. This will result in a

loss of gloss and the formation of white fat crystals on

the surface of the chocolate – the so-called ‘fat

bloom.’ To obtain stable crystals, stable seed crystals

must be formed first. This is done in a process called

Cocoa mass

Sugar

Milk powder

Mixing

Chocolate mass

Grinding, refining

Conching

Cooling, tempering

molding, enrobing,

packaging

Chocolate

Lecithin

Cocoa butter

fig0010 Figure 10 The production of chocolate. Reproduced from

Cocoa: Production, Product and Uses. Encyclopaedia of Food Sci-

ence, Food Technology and Nutrition, Macrae R, Robinson RK and

Sadler MJ (eds), 1993, Academic Press.

COCOA/Production, Products, and Use 1461

tempering. The liquid chocolate at a temperature of

45–50



C is cooled to 32



C, then to 27–27.5



Cand

treated by special shear elements. Shear forces en-

hance the nucleation of stable cocoa butter crystals.

The temperature is now raised to 29–31



C, causing

any crystals of unstable form to melt. The exact

temperatures required for this process depend on the

type of chocolate. After tempering, the chocolate is

ready to be poured into the molds. It is still liquid

but contains 0.1–1% of crystallized fat as seeding

material.

Molding and Enrobing

0098 Chocolate articles are made in two distinct ways.

0099 In molding, the chocolate is poured into a mold,

which then moves on a belt through a cooling tunnel.

After setting, the mold is turned upside down and as a

result of the volume contraction of cocoa butter, the

article will easily fall out of the mold. Solid bars are

then ready for packaging. It is also possible partly to

fill the mold. After filling, the mold is immediately

emptied, and a thin layer remains on the bottom and

wall of the mold. The mold is then cooled, and a

filling is poured in. After cooling, a further chocolate

layer is put on the filling: this becomes the bottom of

the candy when the mold is turned. Large filled bars

are made this way, as also is smaller confectionery.

0100 To make Easter eggs and other hollow products, a

small quantity of chocolate is poured into a split

mold. The mold is then closed and put in a shaking

machine to cool. The chocolate sets against the inner

wall.

0101 In enrobing, the liquid chocolate is poured over a

solid center. Many different products are made this

way, like candy bars, biscuits, cakes, and icecream.

The viscosity of the chocolate determines the thick-

ness of the layer. This can be controlled with the fat

content of the chocolate, which is usually slightly

higher than that of molding chocolate (Table 2).

Packaging, Storage, and Shelf-life

0102 Packaging should protect chocolate products against

moisture and against odors, which can easily be

picked up by the chocolate fat. Furthermore, of

course, the outside of the packaging must radiate

the delicacy and luxury which is the image of

chocolate. Up to now these requirements have

resulted in multiple packages: aluminum foil first,

paper or heat-sealed foil, finally a cardboard box.

Often, the combination of materials prevents reuse

and it is foreseeable that less complicated packaging

will be developed in the near future.

0103Chocolate, with its very low moisture content

(below 1%) and natural antioxidants, has a very

good shelf-life. However, rats, insects, and molds

like it just as much as humans. Thus, proper storage

is important. Another danger arises from high and

irregular storage temperatures. The latter causes the

formation of fat bloom. Although the white color of

the fat resembles mold growing on the product, the

phenomenon is completely harmless.

Food Uses of Cocoa Products

Uses of Cocoa Powder

0104Cocoa powder is used as a natural color and flavor in

a wide variety of sweet foodstuffs. These may be

solid, semisolid, or liquid, and consumed frozen or

hot. These products can be grouped in the following

way:

0105Aqueous systems, consumed frozen. This is the

category to which icecream belongs. The cocoa

powder used is mostly low-fat (10%). A great

variety of colors is used to attain effects resembling

dark or milk chocolate.

0106Aqueous systems, consumed at room temperature.

Examples are milk products like chocolate milk

drinks and desserts. Lightly alkalized cocoa with

10% fat is mostly used.

0107Aqueous systems, consumed hot. Hot chocolate is

the product in which lightly alkalized cocoa

powder with 20% fat is used most frequently.

0108Fat systems. These are coatings based on cocoa

butter substitutes, made with 10% fat cocoa and

often not alkalized (real chocolate is also not alka-

lized). Cocoa butter substitutes may be used for

the sake of economy and, indeed, their use may be

unavoidable for technical reasons. This is the case

with coatings on icecream. At the low temperature

of icecream, chocolate becomes too brittle and

softer fats are needed.

tbl0002 Table 2 Indicative composition of some types of chocolate

Cocoamass (%) Cocoabutter (%) Milk powder (%) Sugar (%)

Dark chocolate 40 10 — 50

Milk chocolate 10 20 15 55

Enrobing chocolate 40 15 — 45

White chocolate — 25 25 50

1462 COCOA/Production, Products, and Use

Uses of Chocolate

0109 Chocolate can be consumed as such, but it is also

much used as an ingredient on or in other foodstuffs.

Enrobing of biscuits and other items has already been

mentioned. Chocolate drops go into biscuits, and

chocolate is used in between wafers. The latter is an

example of the possible use of chocolate in tropical or

subtropical countries. Even if the chocolate melts, it

does not spoil the outside appearance of the product,

nor does it stick to the fingers.

Legislation of Cocoa Products

0110 General directives, serving as a guideline for national

food laws, are laid down by the Codex Alimentarius.

Based on this, the European Union has developed

harmonized directives for its member countries. The

Food, Drug, and Cosmetics Act in the USA gives

similar rules. In most of these countries the name

‘chocolate’ may only be used if no other fat is present

but cocoa butter. CBE fats, up to 5% of the total

chocolate content, may be used in the European

Union. In Japan three types of chocolate are distin-

guished: pure chocolate, chocolate, and semichoco-

late. Only the first of these may not contain fats other

than cocoa butter. See Legislation: International

Standards.

See also: Antioxidants: Natural Antioxidants; Cocoa:

Chemistry of Processing; Colorants (Colourants):

Properties and Determination of Natural Pigments;

Drying: Theory of Air-drying; Drying Using Natural

Radiation; Emulsifiers: Organic Emulsifiers; Lactic Acid

Bacteria; Legislation: International Standards; Fats:

Classification; Milling: Characteristics of Milled Products;

Sensory Evaluation: Taste; Spoilage: Bacterial

Spoilage; Molds in Spoilage; Stabilizers: Types and

Function; Storage Stability: Parameters Affecting

Storage Stability

Further Reading

Beckett ST (1988) Industrial Chocolate Manufacture and

Use. London: Blackie.

Biehl B (1995) Post harvest processing in Asia: approaches

towards flavour improvement. In: Seminar Rencontres

Cacao – les Diffe

rents Aspects de la Qualite

. pp. 75–

89.Montpellier, France: AFCC/CIRAD.

Biehl B, Meyer B, Crone G and Pollmann L (1989) Chem-

ical and physical changes in the pulp during ripening and

post harvest storage of cocoa pods. Journal of Science

and Food Agriculture 48: 189–208.

Cook LR and Meursing EH (1982) Chocolate Production

and Use. New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich.

Drouven H, Fabry I and Go

pel G (1996) Su

ßwaren-

technologie I: Schokolade. Stolberg-Vicht: Drouven &

Fabry.

Fincke A (1965) Handbuch der Kakaoerzeugnisse. Berlin:

Springer-Verlag.

Hunter JR (1990) The status of cacao (Theobroma cacao,

Sterculiaceae) in the western hemisphere. Economic

Botany 44: 425–439.

Knapp AW (1937) Cacao Fermentation: A Critical Survey

of its Scientific Aspects. London: Bale and Curnow.

Lockwood G and Eskes AB (1995) Relationship between

cocoa variety and quality. In: Cocoa Meetings – The

Various Aspects of Quality (Seminar Rencontres Cacao

– les Diffe

rents Aspects de la Qualite

), pp. 53–73, 159–

168. Montpellier, France: AFCC/CIRAD.

Martin RA (1987) Chocolate. Advances in Food Research

31: 211–342.

Meursing EH (1983) Cocoa Powders for Industrial Process-

ing. Koog aan de Zaan, The Netherlands: Cacao de Zaan.

Meyer B, Biehl B, Said M and Samarakoddy RJ (1989) Post

harvest pod storage: a method for pulp preconditioning

to impair strong nib acidification during cocoa fermen-

tation in Malaysia. Journal of Science and Food Agricul-

ture 48: 285–304.

Roelofsen PA (1958) Fermentation, drying and storage of

cocoa beans. Advances in Food Research 8: 225–296.

Rohan TA (1963) Processing of Raw Cocoa for the Market.

FAO Agriculture Studies no. 60. Geneva: Food and Agri-

culture Organization.

Wood GAR and Lass RA (1985) Cocoa, 4th edn. Harlow:

Longman.

Ziegleder G (1985) Improved crystallization of cocoa butter

under shearing. Zeitschrift fu

r Lebensmittel Technologie

und Verfahrenstechnik 36: 412–416.

COCOA/Production, Products, and Use 1463

COCONUT PALM

J J Lal and C V Sreeranjit Kumar, Centre for

Development of Science and Technology, Thrissur,

Kerala, India

M Indira, University of Kerala, Thiruvananthapuram,

Kariavattom, India

Background

0001 This is a graceful palm, 20–30 m in height, and native

to the tropical regions of the world. Its requirement of

high humidity, abundant rainfall (60 cm) and mean

annual temperature of about 33



F makes the sea

coast its usual habitat. Characterized by tall slender

and uniformly thick stem and massive crown with a

large number of paripinnate leaves bearing bunches

of nuts in their axils, the palm enhances the natural

panoramic beauty of countries where it is extensively

cultivated. It is a long-lived plant that may live as long

as 100 years (Figure 1).

0002 The fact that the coconut palm could be found

throughout the tropics, even before the advent

of European explorers, renders the tracing of its

origin quite difficult. Coconut was first mentioned

by an Egyptian monk, Cosmos Indicopleustes in

‘Topographia Christiana’ in ad 545. The most im-

portant regions of coconut production are the Philip-

pine islands, Malaysia, India, Indonesia, and Sri

Lanka.

0003 There are several different varieties of coconut

palms, including tall and dwarf. The common tall

varieties are Ceylon tall, Indian tall, Jamaica tall,

Malayan tall, Java tall, and Laguna. Malayan dwarf,

Dwarf green, Dwarf orange, and Dwarf Fijian are

some of the dwarf varieties. Tall varieties are com-

monly cultivated for commercial purpose. Tall var-

ieties are slow to mature and produce the first flowers

6–10 years after planting. The life span of tall var-

ieties is about 60–100 years. Dwarf varieties may

grow to a height of 7.5–9 m, produce the first flowers

after 3 years, and have a life span of about 30 years.

Dwarf varieties are thought to have originated as a

result of a mutation of tall types. D T (dwarf tall)

and T D (tall dwarf) hybrids are early bearers and

are found to be superior to their parents in terms of

yield under favorable conditions. There are also sev-

eral unusual types of coconut palms in different parts

of the world. Lodoicea maldivica, a palm very closely

related to coconut is known as double coconut or

Maldive nut. Its nut is considered to be the largest

plant seed in the world and looks like two coconuts

joined together side by side. Macapuno is a Philippine

variety of the coconut palm that does not have any

water inside the coconut shell. Its ‘meat’ is a soft jelly-

like substance that is used in popular Filipino sweets.

0004Coconut palm adapts to almost all types of well-

drained tropical soils like coastal sand, red loam,

laterite, alluvial, and the reclaimed soil of the marshy

low land. A water table that is too high and remains

static for long periods is harmful, but the palm

can tolerate salinity and a wide range of pHs from

5.0 to 8.0.

0005Coconut palm is propagated with the help of seeds.

Seeds are selected from healthy, high-yielding, and

regularly bearing palms. One-year-old healthy seed-

lings with a minimum of six leaves are selected for

planting. Nine-month-old seedlings with a minimum

of four leaves can also be used for planting. The

square system of planting, with a spacing of 7.5–9m

accommodates, 124–177 palms per hectare. The

fig0001Figure 1 (see color plate 37) Coconut palm.

1464 COCONUT PALM

triangular method with a spacing of 7.6 m accomo-

dates 198 palms per hectare. In the hedge system of

planting, larger number of plants can be planted in a

unit area, ensuring sufficient light on each palm.

0006 Calopagonium muconoides, Mimosa invisa, Stylo-

santhes gracilis, etc. are cultivated as cover crops in

coconut gardens. Crotalaria juncea, Tephrosia pur-

purea, Indigofera hirsuta, etc. are grown as green

manure crops in coconut gardens. Under rain-fed

conditions, tuber crops (tapioca, yams, ginger, tur-

meric, etc.), banana, pineapple, and pulses can be

grown as intercrops in adult coconut plantations

without affecting the fertility of the soil and product-

ivity of the palms. Under irrigated conditions, plants

like cocoa form crop combinations with coconut.

Pepper, cinnamon, clove, nutmeg, etc. are ideal for

mixed cropping with coconut. Mixed farming, in-

cluding the rearing of cattle on fodder grasses and

legumes raised as intercrops with coconut gardens,

in turn yield dung, and urine is a very remunerative

form of mixed husbandry suited to farmers with small

coconut holdings. It increases the fertility of the soil

by recycling organic wastes, enhances the yield of

palms, and generates additional income and job

opportunities for the farmers.

0007 Once the palm has attained the normal bearing

stage, it continues to bear a bunch of nuts in every

leaf axil at monthly intervals throughout its life

extending over 50–60 years. The nuts mature 1 year

after fertilization. Harvesting is done once every 45 or

60 days. Tender nuts are harvested at the age of 6–7

months for delicious soft drinks. Nuts for culinary

purposes and copra are harvested at 11 months. The

average yield per hectare varies from 10 000 to 14 000

nuts per annum. In Asia, experienced harvesters often

pick the nuts from the tree after observing the color of

the nuts, position of the bunch, quantity of water

inside the nut, and texture of the husk. But in certain

regions of the world, the ripe nuts are collected only

after they have fallen from the tree. Coconut harvest-

ing after picking from tall trees is a tedious operation,

so various techniques such as coconut-climbing

machines have been adopted in different regions.

0008 Harvesting of immature nuts causes the production

of rubbery copra with a high moisture content. At the

same time, permitting nuts to fall naturally without

picking the nuts from the tree may result in a 10%

loss in the total harvest because of over-ripe nuts or

germinated nuts. Losses resulting from nuts that are

hidden or covered by thick weeds or shrubs could also

range from 5 to 10% of the total harvest, if the

coconuts are not harvested regularly.

0009 The value-added products obtained from the palm

and its wide utility make it one of the most useful

trees in the world. Each and every part of the palm is

useful to humanity in one way or the other. Hence, in

Sanskrit, it is called the ‘Kalpa Vriksha,’ which means

that it is a tree that provides all the necessities of life.

It constitutes the part and parcel of all religious and

cultural activities and forms a major source of income

of the people in coconut-growing countries. It has a

variety of uses centering around the nut, whether

matured or green. Most parts of this tree are used

medicinally especially in the Ayurvedic system, but

the documented reports are scanty. The know-how

is passed down from generation to generation by

word of mouth, and its usage varies from place to

place (Figure 2).

0010The palm plays an important role in the function-

ing of the local populations through its sustainable

production of food, drink, and shelter. More than 100

products are available directly or indirectly from

coconut, varying from simple cooking utensils to

high-added-value products like cocochemicals and

charcoal. The major cocochemicals are methylesters,

fatty alcohols and glycerine.

Parts used

0011These include the root, trunk, leaves, inflorescence,

bud, flower, fruit, and germinating nut.

Roots

0012Decoctions prepared from the roots are known for

their astringent, diuretic, and antipyretic activities. It

is used in mouthwashes and gargles, and is also used

to treat uterine diseases. Roasted and ground roots

can be used as a coffee substitute.

Trunk

0013The trunk is used for its starch. The juice that flows

from the trunk when a coconut tree is cut down can

be used as a drink, and the bark is used in some places

for curing toothache and earache. The ash of the bark

is sometimes sued as an antiseptic and is sometimes

prescribed in scabies. The fibers of the trunk are

recommended as a diuretic and are sometimes used

in the treatment of tapeworm and inflammation of

the throat.

Leaves

0014Coconut palm leaves are used for cattle as a fodder,

after removing the midrib. The plaited leaves are used

for thatching houses, fencing, religious ceremonies,

and decorations, etc.

Bud

0015The terminal bud or growing point of the tree con-

sists of a group of tightly packed yellow–white

COCONUT PALM 1465