Caballero B. (ed.) Encyclopaedia of Food Science, Food Technology and Nutrition. Ten-Volume Set

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with shelves left available for red grapefruits from

Florida. Following restructuring of the industry’s

marketing activities, success has been achieved in

the export of ‘Sweetie’ (Oroblanco) grapefruit. This

grew successfully in Israel and was found to be highly

suited to the Japanese palate. In recent times, most of

the ‘Sweetie’ grapefruit produced has been exported

to Japan and sold as green-skinned, early grapefruit

or later in the season with yellow skin as ‘Golden

Sweetie.’

0042 Grapefruits have expanded rapidly, resulting in the

planting of 27 000 ha, with a low 13%, nonbearing.

About half are red-fleshed cultivars, like ‘Sunrise’

(Star Ruby) and ‘Sweetie’ (Oroblanco).

Cuba

0043 Given its climate, citrus are widely grown in Cuba,

with grapefruit production increasing to 270 000 t in

1998/99. Following the loss of some European export

markets in the 1990s, the markets declined from a 10-

year average of 134 900 t to only 43 750 t during the

four years of 1995/96 to 1998/99. An increased per-

centage of the crop is processed, up from the 10-year

average in 1980/81 to 1988/99 of 32 800 t to an aver-

age of 158 000 t during the 4 years of 1995/96 to

1998/99. The main cultivar grown has been the

traditional white Marsh.

China

0044 Although listed as the fourth largest producer of

‘grapefruit’ in the world, most production is

pummelo. Owing to favorable climatic conditions

and the very large domestic market, production will

increase generally in tropical Asian countries.

Southern Africa

0045 Although only the sixth largest grapefruit producer,

Southern Africa’s production has increased signifi-

cantly from the 10-year average of only 76 900 t in

1970/71 to 1978/79 to 189 000 t in 1998/99. In the

southern hemisphere, this production is only slightly

smaller than the fifth producing country, Argentina

(210 000 t, Table 3). Grapefruit makes up 17% of

plantings with 5% red-fleshed cultivars, 10% white,

and 2% rose or pink, with greatest expansion for

Star Ruby. Of all the other red-fleshed cultivars,

their degree of pigmentation is far less than that of

Star Ruby. Total exports have increased rapidly since

1984 from 24 000 to 548 000 cartons.

Harvesting and Marketing

0046 The growing, harvesting, and marketing of grapefruit

can present unique problems, which are best

overcome by specialist growers in selected climatic-

ally suitable localities. Present-day production

focuses on careful cultivar selection to best suit con-

ditions and cultural practices, in order to achieve a

successful marketing outcome.

Maturity

0047Early in the marketing season, grapefruit are espe-

cially prone to poor palatability and low consumer

acceptance due to the high acidity and bitterness from

the glucoside naringin and/or limonin. This problem

is worse where fruits are harvested from marginal

growing climates and poorly chosen rootstocks.

Most regions now have maturity standards to insure

that all marketed grapefruits are palatable and

acceptable to consumers, e.g., in Southern Africa,

export standards have been set at 50% minimum

juice, 90



TSS, 1.75 maximum acidity and 6:1 min-

imum TSS:acid ratio. As grapefruit mature on the

tree, the TSS increases, and the acidity decreases,

but once harvested, these do not change.

0048The estimated maturity and main marketing

periods for some grapefruit in Southern Africa (south-

ern hemisphere) are:

0049Marsh: end of April to end of August

0050Ray Ruby, Flame, Star Ruby: all maturing mid-

May to end of August

0053Rio Red: early June to end of September.

0054Only a limited number of cultivars may be grown

in any locality, but there is a small difference in opti-

mum maturity (see above) that can be taken into

account when selecting those cultivars to be grown

and helping to insure a continuous supply of fresh

fruit for the available markets. In Florida, all com-

mercial cultivars reach their legal maturity in Septem-

ber or October (northern hemisphere), but can be

stored on the tree (as described below) for several

months and up to the end of May, when they begin

to fall, and seeds start germinating within the fruits.

Degreening

0055Early in the season, mature grapefruit may not be

fully colored. Fruit may be degreened by exposure

to ethylene gas for short periods in special chambers.

Preharvest Drop

0056Grapefruit are prone to preharvest drop and severe

crop losses (Figure 6). A common cultural practice is

to apply a registered growth regulator (like 2,4-D

amine salts) at color change. This spray has the bene-

ficial effect of delaying the formation of the abscis-

sion cell layer at the junction of the fruit stem and

button. It greatly reduces fruit drop over a period of

1366 CITRUS FRUITS/Grapefruits

several months and helps retain green buttons after

harvest. Fruit can be ‘stored on the tree’ for up to 7

months past normal maturity and fruit drop, enabling

more orderly harvesting and marketing over much

longer periods of time than would be normal without

treatment.

Rind Aging

0057 Another cultural practice is the application of a regis-

tered growth regulator, gibberellic acid, to slow down

the rind aging process without affecting fruit quality,

by reducing the rind thickness and puffiness in late-

hanging fruit.

Cold Storage

0058 Apart from the normal marketing periods, grapefruit

are not held for long-term cold storage. Fruit may be

stored for 5–8 weeks at 15.5–10.0



C but are very

susceptible to common storage breakdown problems

and chilling injury, like peel pitting and oil-gland

darkening.

Crop Utilization

0059 Grapefruits are principally marketed according to

how they are consumed, with local fresh fruit and

exports totaling 62% and 38% processed (compared

with 34% of oranges) as summarized in Table 2. All

major producing countries process a significant pro-

portion of their crops; the USA is the largest processor

with 53%, followed by Israel and Cuba (both 57%).

See Tables 2 and 3.

0060In the world fresh grapefruit export fruit trade in

1998/99, the following regions/countries were the

major importers: Japan, the Mediterranean region,

the Netherlands, France, and Belgium.

Fresh Fruit

0061Grapefruit cannot be considered a ‘sweet dessert’

fruit, but because of its refreshing flavor and mild

bitterness, fresh grapefruit is desirable as a healthy

breakfast fruit. Chilled halves with the sections

loosened from the peel, flavored with sugar or

honey to taste and the pulp spooned out make a

refreshing start to the day.

0062As an appetizer before dinner, grapefruit halves

may be similarly sweetened, lightly boiled, and served

hot, often topped with a maraschino cherry. Sections

are commonly used in fruit cups or fruit salads, in

gelatins, puddings, or tarts. Fresh (chilled) juice

makes a refreshing healthy drink any time of the

day. Segments are suitable for garnishing and decor-

ating salads or topping desserts. The fruit and juice

can be used in dishes such as grapefruit and ginger

chicken.

0065Grapefruit and other edible citrus fruits derive their

unique qualities from about 20 principal factors,

which can mainly be conveniently grouped as internal

and external. The internal or chemical ones can also

be measured like sugars or carbohydrates (sucrose,

glucose and fructose as total soluble solids – TSS),

organic acids (citric and malic measured as titratable

acidity – TA), sugar:acid ratio – TSS; TA, juice con-

tent and color, are of vital concern for consumer

acceptance and preference. All of these factors change

fig0006 Figure 6 Preharvest fruit drop off near mature grapefruit.

CITRUS FRUITS/Grapefruits 1367

as fruit matures and with grapefruit can be extended

for over six or seven months on the tree, before be-

coming overmature and unacceptable.

0066 See Table 4 for some food values of normal edible

grapefruit portions – pulp and juice. The bitterness

factors of limonin are normally found in the peel oil,

while glycoside naringin occurs in the pulp segments.

Processed Products

0063 Processed grapefruit products include white, pink, or

red segments in syrup or natural juice, juice products

(fresh or frozen, canned, dehydrated as a powder, or

concentrated), and rind oil or essence as often used in

aromatherapy, for massage, or in baths. After the

juice is extracted, there remain residues that can be

a source material for other valuable byproducts.

Some specialized types are also candied, dried, or

used for marmalade, jelly, and pectin manufacture.

0064 White-fleshed varieties are mainly processed into

higher-priced juice products. A smaller percentage of

red-fleshed varieties are juiced, one reason being be-

cause if the processing fruits and therefore the juices

are mixed the red lycopene pigment turns the white

juice an undesirable brown or muddy color, and juice

prices are lower for normal red juice. With the trend

towards increased red-fleshed varieties, this has

resulted in problems of disposing of processing or non-

fresh marketable fruit. Whether significant volumes of

red juice and other processed products can be success-

fully marketed will depend on innovative companies

with new products like red grapefruit juice cocktails

and aggressive promotion and marketing.

See also: Citrus Fruits: Types on the Market; Composition

and Characterization

Further Reading

Castle WS (1994) A production and marketing perspec-

tive on Florida grapefruit and mandarin cultivars. In:

Proceedings of the Second Horticultural Industry

Technical Conference, NSW. Sydney: AUS HS Wine

Titles.

Cottin R (coordinator) (1997) Citrus of the World. A Citrus

Directory. San Giuliano, France: SRA INRA-CIRAD.

FAO (1999) Citrus Fruit Fresh and Processed, Annual

Statistics, Tables 1–10 and 16–20. Rome: Food and

Agriculture Organization.

Reuther W, Webber HJ and Batchelor LD (eds) (1967) The

Citrus Industry, vol. 1. Berkley, CA: University of

California.

Saunt J (2000) Citrus Varieties of the World. An Illustrated

Guide. Norwich, UK: Sinclair International.

Sinclair WB (1984) The Biochemistry and Physiology of the

Lemon and other Citrus Fruits, pp. 711–718. Berkley,

CA: University of California.

Swingle WT and Reece PC (1967) The botany of citrus and

its wild relatives. In: Reuther W, Webber HJ and Batch-

elor LD (eds) The Citrus Industry, vol 1. Berkley, CA:

University of California.

USDA (1999) World Citrus Situation. In: World Horticul-

tureal Trade and US Export Opportunities Circular

Series FHORTH, pp. 18–32. USA: Foreign Agricultural

Service.

Webber HJ and Batchelor LD (eds) The Citrus Industry,

vol 1. Berkley, CA: University of California.

Young RH (1986) Fresh citrus cultivars. In: Wardowski WF,

Nagy S and Grierson W (eds) Fresh Citrus Fruits, pp.

110–125. Westpoint, CT: AVI.

Limes

R E Berry, Citrus/Tropical Fruit Products, Winter

Haven, FL, USA

Introduction

0001Limes constitute one of the general types of citrus

fruits long known and consumed throughout the

world. Relative values of parts of the fruit are closely

related to relative amounts of acid and sugars, and to

the amount and composition of the peel oil. Several

main cultivars and fruit types of limes are quite dif-

ferent in appearance as well as physical and chemical

composition. Lime juices and oils are prepared by

several different processes, and their economic value

is directly related to the method of preparation, as

well as the fruit source.

tbl0004 Table 4 Selected food values per 100 g of some edible

grapefruit portions

Chemical

composition

Pulp (raw) Juice (raw)

Calories 34.4–46.4 37–42

Moisture 87.5–91.3 g 89.2–90.4 g

protein 0.5–1.0 g 0.4–0.5 g

Fat 0.06–0.20 g 0.1 g

Carbohydrates 8.07–11.5 g 8.8–10.2 g

Fiber 0.14–0.77 g trace

Sodium 1.0 mg 1.0 mg

Potassium 135 mg 162 mg

Vitamin A white 10 IU 10 IU

pink/red 440 IU 440 IU

Ascorbic acid 36–49.8 mg 36–40 mg

According to analyses made in California, Texas, Florida, Cuba and

Central America.

Adapted from Morton J (1987) Fruits of warm climates grapefruit, pp. 152–

158, Miami, Florida.

1368 CITRUS FRUITS/Limes

History and General Characteristics

0002 Limes are known world-wide for their tart, tangy-

flavored juice and especially for their unique flowery,

characteristic aromas. They were introduced to many

parts of the world through the explorations of the

British navy, where they were probably first used for

clinical and nutritional purposes. Their extensive use

on-board ship to prevent or treat attacks of ‘scurvy’

(caused by vitamin C deficiency) earned British

sailors the distinctive name ‘Limeys.’ Most evidence

indicates that limes probably originated in northeast-

ern India and migrated via the trade routes into the

Middle East and on to the Western world through

sailing vessel trade markets.

0003 The juice of most types of limes is too acidic to be

consumed undiluted. However, limes are popular for

use in juice mixtures, -ades (mixes with sugar, water

and/or other juices) and carbonated beverages, and as

a component of alcoholic drinks and mixes. In some

countries, they are used in pickling, culinary, and

medical applications. A main economical value of

limes comes from the highly valued lime oil, used

in products as diverse as cosmetics (shave lotions,

perfumes, and colognes) and household cleaning

products (washing powders, soaps, furniture polish,

and bathroom deodorants). Lime trees are extremely

cold-sensitive and will be productive only in subtrop-

ical to tropical climates where temperatures seldom

go below the freezing point.

0004 Limes are the most acidic of all citrus fruits and

lower in vitamin C content than lemons. Like lemons,

they are highly valued for their juice and acid content.

Most limes consist of 40% or more juice by weight

or volume. The remainder consists of seeds, vascular

bundles, parts of albedo (white inner part) adhering to

the skin or flavedo (outer, colored part), and parts of

fruit segments, collectively referred to as ‘rag.’ The

juice of most cultivars consists of about 90–91%

water, 0.2–0.3% protein, 0.7% (in acid types) to

9.0% (in sweet types) sugars, 0.1% fat, and 0.3%

minerals (ash). The juice (100 ml) supplies 110–

140 kJ (26 kcal) of energy, 50 mg of ascorbic acid (vita-

min C) and a trace of dietary fiber. A wide range of

vitamin C levels has been reported, and, as with most

citrus fruits, the level is higher in the peel or rind (63–

121 mg%) than in the fruit or juice (30–70 mg%).

0005 Quite differentfrom thebasis ofvalue forother types

of citrus, the value of limes (and lemons) is based pri-

marily on the weight of acid (as citric, although there

are traces of many others) per unit volume of juice. This

is in contrast to the ratio of sugar to acid used for

oranges, grapefruits, tangerines, etc. Computer pro-

grams and automatic titrator instruments provide

such data at a high rate in citrus processing plant

quality-control and inspection laboratories. The

values reported for lime juice acid content (as citric)

range from about 6.0 to 8.5% (average 7.20%).

Cultivars and Fruit Types

0006The small-fruited, acid lime (Citrus aurantifolia

Swingle) is the predominant type in the world. It is

widely grown in India, Mexico, Egypt, the West Indies,

China, California, the southern tip of the Florida Pen-

insula, and the Florida Keys (USA), where it is known

as the ‘Mexican’ or ‘Key’ lime. Although found in

Brazil as the ‘Gallego’ lime, it is not as well known

there. The fruit is small, round, somewhat short-ellip-

tical, and bright to greenish yellow when mature.

Moderately seedy, it has a thin rind (smooth and

leathery), and the flesh is very juicy, highly acid, and

has a unique, distinctive flowery aroma.

0007The large-fruited, acid limes (main cultivar Citrus

latifolia Tan.) are more oblong in shape, light to dark

green at maturity, and two to five times larger, on

average, than the small-fruited limes. These limes,

often called Tahitian or Persian, were brought to

California from Tahiti, but do not seem to have any

connection with Persia. About the size and shape of

the common Bearss lemon, they may be a hybrid of

the citron and/or the lemon, but the parentage and

true source are not definite. This lime is grown mostly

in South Florida (and, to some extent, in Australia

and California) because of its better tolerance of cold

and its lower requirement for heat to reach maturity.

Other types of lime – the Bearss, from California, as

well as the Sahesli of Tunisia and the Pond of Hawaii

– seem certain, from horticultural evidence, to be the

same as the Persian. The juice has a high-quality

characteristic lime flavor, and the aroma is typical of

that commonly described as ‘lime-like’ throughout

most of the world.

0008The sweet lime (Citrus limettioides Tan.) is widely

consumed in India, the Middle East, and Latin Amer-

ica. It is known as the Palestine or Indian sweet lime,

and is used in those countries for medicinal purposes.

The fruit, medium in size and round to slightly

oblong, is greenish yellow to orange-yellow at matur-

ity. The flesh is yellowish; the rind has a distinctive,

slightly medicine- or turpentine-like aroma, and the

juice is so nonacid as to be insipid to most tastes.

These limes are seldom processed except in very

small-scale, simple home-type juicing and bottling

operations. (See Atherosclerosis.)

Lime Juice

0009Lime juice can be prepared and concentrated in large

amounts at high rates in the same general manner as

CITRUS FRUITS/Limes 1369

for orange and grapefruit juices, using similar equip-

ment. For juice extraction, however, smaller (than

usual for oranges) cups are used on one type of ex-

tractor, which individually cuts and presses each fruit.

Another type of extractor presses and disrupts the

entire fruit between rotating converging disks, and

the fruit, pulp, and rag mixture is then separated

from the juice in a screw press/screen finisher. Single-

strength lime juice may be blended with sugars,

syrups, water, or carbonated water and bottled in

glass or sealed in metal cans. These types of juice

products are usually preserved with a small amount

of added sulfite or bisulfite. They may remain stable

without refrigeration up to a year or longer.

0010 The juice can be concentrated on a thermal

accelerated short time evaporator (TASTE), widely

used throughout the world citrus processing indus-

tries. However, since lime juice contains a higher

percentage of organic acids than of carbohydrates,

the degree of concentration is determined as grams

per liter of acid rather than the degrees Brix (approxi-

mate percentage of sugars) commonly used for other

citrus concentrates. However, Brix measurements

with a commonly available Brixometer remain neces-

sary, to determine the bulk density from which the

GPL can be calculated. Computer programs and

automated instrumentation provide dependable de-

terminations at a high rate. Most lime concentrates

are evaporated to about 400–500 g l

1

. The uncor-

rected, observed, desired Brix value (roughly analo-

gous to the acid concentration desired) must be

known since evaporation control is based on in-line

Brixometers. The approximate desired Brix value

must be determined based on the acid and Brix of

the incoming single strength juice, using standard

methods.

Lime Oil

0011 Lime oil, a major commercial product in world

markets is, in most processes, more valuable than

the juice, which may be considered a byproduct

of the lime oil process. It may be prepared by allowing

the liquid, separated from the pressed mixture of fruit

parts described above, to stand until the oil ‘layers’

off at the top, and then decanting or distilling off the

layer. The character and composition of the decanted

oil vary considerably from those of the distilled oil. As

a byproduct of this process, the bottom juice layer is a

clarified, sparkling clear, light green-colored juice.

Special clarifying additives are often used in this pro-

cess to enhance the clarity of the resultant juice. This

product is distributed widely around the world, espe-

cially in the UK and the Caribbean area, as a mixer

base for alcoholic and soft drinks.

0012Lime oil may also be prepared by a long-used con-

ventional ‘cold-pressing’ process, whereby the flavedo

and adhering fruit parts are passed into a conical

pressure filtration press. The ‘peel juice’ is pressed

through a steel screen, and the oil is separated in a

high-speed centrifuge. This process produces a clear,

green-colored oil with a fine aromatic quality and

stability of aroma and flavor. The juice or concentrate

resulting from this type of process has a stable, well-

suspended ‘cloud’ and is used in bases for juice drinks,

-ades, and soft drinks. (See Soft Drinks: Production.)

0013The oil is located in oval-shaped oil sacs situated

rather evenly throughout the flavedo or outer layer

of the peel. The oil sacs function as a natural toxic

barrier to microorganisms and insects that might

otherwise attack the fruit. The oil is composed of

a base sesquiterpene hydrocarbon (d-limonene,

more than 50%) and a mixture of other mono- and

sesquiterpenes. From lime oil analyses many organic

components have been identified, including 12 alco-

hols, seven aldehydes, four esters, one ketone, and

22 hydrocarbons, with 7% nonvolatiles (mainly

coumarins).

0014To control and classify the quality and value of

citrus oils, the National Research Council, officially

recognized by the US Food and Drug Administration,

has published and regularly updates the ‘Food Chem-

icals Codex’ (FCC). A current summary of lime oil

specifications and standards can be readily obtained

from that source.

Storage

0015Because of their extremely high acidity and low pH,

limes are more stable than many other citrus fruits.

However, problems may be encountered at certain

temperatures and humidities with growth of acid-

tolerant surface fungi. Control has been accom-

plished using biological growth regulators. In Persian

limes, 2,4-dichlorophenolindophenol (24D) and gib-

berellic acid (GA) have been successful in reducing

the growth of ‘Penicillium’-type molds, yellowing,

mottling and discoloration of the rinds during stor-

age. Such problems have not been solved through the

use of controlled-atmosphere storage, but can be

greatly controlled through the use of optimum stor-

age conditions for fresh fruit, i.e., 10



C and 90–95%

relative humidity where a storage life of up to 4 weeks

or longer has been reported without any notable

injury, pitting, or discoloration of fruit.

Value

0016The great majority of limes in the world are produced

in India, Indonesia, and Mexico, predominantly for

1370 CITRUS FRUITS/Limes

local fresh fruit markets, and thus statistical data on

value and extent of the crop and the fresh market are

unavoidably biased and not highly accurate. Few de-

pendable agricultural statistics are available for local

fresh markets in most geographic areas. Although the

USA is a notable and important producer of limes and

lime products, it is not the major world producer of

the fresh fruit, but the most dependable statistics on

production and value of products are those for the

USA. The total annual production of all types of limes

in the USA ranges around 70 000–80 000 t. In gen-

eral, the amount of those processed has been about

50–60% of the total crop. The annual value varies

considerably and is highly influenced by climate,

local weather, outbreaks of plant diseases, and

insect-control measures. The USA imports five to 10

times more limes than it exports, and the total USA

annual crop has been equal to about 25% of the

world crop during the past decade. Data on US pro-

duction of limes, lime juice products and lime oil are

available from the US Department of Agriculture

statistics department, and Florida fruit data are avail-

able from the Florida Department of Citrus, Lake-

land, FL.

See also: Ascorbic Acid: Properties and Determination;

Physiology; Controlled-atmosphere Storage: Effects on

Fruit and Vegetables; Essential Oils: Properties and

Uses; Scurvy; Spoilage: Fungi in Food – An Overview;

Storage Stability: Mechanisms of Degradation

Further Reading

Florida Department of Citrus (1998) Annual Citrus Statis-

tical Data. Lakeland, FL: Florida Department of Citrus

Headquarters.

Hicks D (ed.) (1990) Production and Packaging of Non-

carbonated Fruit Juices and Fruit Beverages. New York:

Van Nostrand Reinhold.

Kimball DA (1999) Citrus Processing, A Complete Guide.

Gaithersberg, MD: Aspen Publishers.

Pattee HE (1985) Evaluation of Quality of Fruits and

Vegetables. Westport, CT: AVI Publishing.

Sinclair WB (1984) The Biochemistry and Physiology of the

Lemon and Other Citrus Fruits. Davis, CA: University

of California, Division of Agriculture and Natural

Resources.

US Department of Agriculture (1998) Agricultural

Statistics. Washington, DC: US Government Printing

Office.

US Food and Drug Administration (1999) Food Chemicals

Codex (FCC). Washington, DC: US Government

Printing Office.

Wardowsky WF, Nagy S and Grierson W (eds) (1986) Fresh

Citrus Fruits. Westport, CT: AVI Publishing.

Mandarins

J Forsyth, Citrus Consultant, Sydney, NSW, Australia

Background

0001Mandarins, which are also known as tangerines

some parts of the world, and their related hybrids, are

the largest and most variable group within the edible

Citrus species. They consist of many cultivars that

vary in importance according to local and export

market needs, growing conditions, and climatic

zones. The large and increasing production has sig-

nificance in local and world trade, especially for fresh

fruit. Some brief details on mandarin classification

and origin of the species, growing regions and condi-

tions, production statistics, harvesting marketing,

and crop utilization are discussed.

0002Fruits range from oblate to globose to subglobose

in shape, and small to medium in average size. The

rind varies from thin to medium in thickness, with a

smooth to rough or pebbled surface texture that may

be easy or tight to peel. The color of both the rind and

flesh may be yellow, or light to dark orange. Maturity

ranges from very early to late, depending on the

cultivar and growing conditions.

0003Mandarins are mainly consumed as fresh fruit.

There are several health benefits associated with

fresh citrus consumption: citrus fruits are a source of

many essential nutrients and compounds, and a low-

energy (low calories), fat-free source of vitamin C,

dietary fiber, folate, potassium, and several phyto-

chemicals. These multiple nutritional benefits from

citrus, and especially the very convenient mandarins

group, are only possible through the consumption

of fresh fruit and juices and currently cannot be

obtained from supplements.

Classification

0004The taxonomic classification of the Citrus species is

complex and diverse, and not universally agreed

upon, but those used by Swingle and Reece will be

followed in this article. Citrus, as a social and cultural

fruit crop, also has countless local or regional names

and identities

throughout the world, often for an

Tangerine was initially adopted in the USA, to better describe

those mandarin cultivars that had a deep reddish orange rind like

the Dancy cultivar.

Ortanique originated in Jamaica but is also known as Topaz (in

Israel), Tambor (Southern Africa), Mandore (Cyprus), Ortaline

(Morocco), and Ormanda (Honduras).

CITRUS FRUITS/Mandarins 1371

identical cultivar. (See Citrus Fruits: Types on the

Market.)

0005 The mandarin group and related hybrids are very

diverse (with over 100 cultivars), but can be classified

into a number of main groups, some of which contain

a large number of subgroups. This fruits is more

seasonal, with each cultivar maturing and suitable

for harvesting only over a relatively short period of

time, e.g., 6–8 weeks on average. Several cultivars are

now available for the main types that can supply fresh

fruit from very early to very late maturity. Mandarin

production is increasing, with a consumer trend

towards fruit that is easier to peel and segment and

is seedless. Only limited quantities are processed

into juice or canned segments.

0006 Common mandarins (Citrus reticulata Blanco) are

a very extensive group of different cultivars now

widely grown and available in world markets; e.g.,

Imperial, Kara, Emperor, Ponkan, Dancy, Kinnow,

Sunburst, and Fortune are all old cultivars, with

some examples of newer common mandarins in-

cluding Michal, Nova, Fallglo, Encore, and Daisy.

This large group also includes several other com-

mercially important subclasses.

0007 The clementine may have originated in Algeria, as

a natural hybrid located and growing there in the

1890s.

0008 Two hybrid groups exist, e.g., tangors, which are

hybrids of the mandarin and orange C. reticulata 

C. sinensis [L] Osbeck like Murcott, Afourer, Mor,

Ortanique, Temple, Tankan, and Ellendale. Tan-

gelos are hybrids of the mandarin and grapefruit

or pummelo C. reticulata C. paradisi Macfadyen

with Minneola, Orlando, Page, and Seminole as

cultivar examples.

0009 Satsuma mandarins (C. unshiu Marcovitch) are

also known as Unshiu mikan in Japan and China.

They were initially mainly grown in Japan and

Spain up to the 1980s but are now an important

expanding seedless group throughout the world,

because of their cold hardiness. This Satsuma

group now includes many newer selections, like

Hashimoto, Clausellina, Miho, Owari, Miyagawa,

and Okitsu.

0010 The Mediterranean mandarin (C. deliciosa Tenore)

is also known as Willowleaf (because of its

drooping branches and small narrow leaf charac-

teristics) and includes Avana clones Apireno and

Tardivo.

0011 King mandarins (C. nobilis Loureiro) are a small

and relatively minor group like the King/King of

Siam and the Kunenbo. They are mainly grown in

South-east Asia and are extremely late maturing.

There is only minor world interest in King hybrids

like Encore, Kinnow, and Wilking cultivars.

0012Small-fruited mandarins remain old cultivars

mainly in China and Asia, where they are sold on

local markets, e.g., Bendizau, Nanfengmiju, and

Hungchien. Some are also used as specialist citrus

rootstocks, i.e., Cleopatra mandarin (C. reshni)

from India and Sunki mandarin (C. sunki) from

China.

Origin

0013The main common mandarins are thought to be

native to northeastern India and southern China

and were grown there in very early times (twelfth

century bc). The clementine may have originated in

Algeria, as one of the first cultivars grown in the

1890s bore this name. Other distinctive groups

(satsuma types) are believed to have originated in

Japan or China, the Mediterranean mandarins are

thought to have been introduced mainly to Italy

from China in 1805 (via England and Malta) and

the minor King group appears to have originated in

Indo-China.

0014Some current cultivars are very old and originated

in ancient cultures or growing regions. However, a

large number of current commercially important

mandarin are of much more recent origin, especially

in the 1900s through natural mutations or sports,

chance seedlings, or the result of specific breeding

programs and irradiation treatment of seeds or

budwood, e.g.:

0015Ellendale originated as a seedling in about 1878 in

Queensland, Australia.

0016Kara is a hybrid of Owari satsuma and King man-

darin in 1915, but not released to the USA industry

until 1935.

0017Marisol is a bud mutation found in 1970 on a

Oroval clementine tree in Spain.

0018Miho and Okitsu are nucellar selections derived

from Miyagawa satsuma by controlled pollination

in 1940 in Japan and released in 1953.

0019Fallglo is a complex hybrid of Bower (clementine 

Orlando) and Temple in 1962, but not released in

the USA until 1987.

0020For the remainder of this article, the term ‘manda-

rin’ is used without qualification and should be taken

to cover and include the whole mandarin group and

related hybrids mentioned above.

0021With recent improvements in virus or other trans-

missible disease elimination like shoot–tip grafting

in vitro, heat therapy, and postentry plant quarantine

procedures, many more recent and modern cultivars

1372 CITRUS FRUITS/Mandarins

are now available for evaluation and local culture

throughout many countries of the world.

0022 There is also a trend for new cultivars to be pro-

tected and patented, so that the breeder can help

offset the high cost of breeding, evaluating and multi-

plying new releases by receiving royalty payments.

For example Gold Nugget in the USA, Loretina in

Spain, Sunset in Australia, Robyn in South Africa,

Afourer in Morocco, Cami in Italy, and Mor in Israel

have all become available and patented only in the

last 10 years.

0023 Many countries throughout the world have major

citrus germplasm collections – for cultivar evaluation,

breeding programs and/or sources of propagation

material. One of these major germplasm collections

by the Institute National de Recherche Agronomique

in Corsica has 716 scion cultivars recorded in 1997.

These included a total of 271 (varieties, hybrids, se-

lections, or clones) or 38% as mandarins, collected

from around the world (mainly common mandarins

78 cultivars, clementine 83, satsuma 31, and tangelo

31).

Growing Regions and Conditions

0024 Growing regions for mandarins, with a range of total

heat requirements are like all citrus in general, being

produced in a wide range of climatic conditions, in-

cluding the humid tropics, arid subtropics, and inter-

mediate climates. Commercial production also tends

to be located in two narrow belts in the subtropics

and between 20 and 40



latitude north and south of

the equator.

0025 Citrus grows best in cooler, frost-free, Mediterra-

nean-type climates, provided that the soils are suit-

able, and rainfall is at least 1200 mm, distributed

evenly throughout the year or supplemented by irri-

gation. Climate can have a significant effect on yield,

fruit quality, and tree health. In particular, minimum

temperatures and degrees of frost restrict commercial

mandarin production within specific areas of many

growing countries of the world.

0026 However, mandarin trees are generally the most

cold-resistant of all the citrus species of commercial

importance, but the fruit is more susceptible

to cold damage than oranges or grapefruit, owing

to its small size and thin soft rind. Many cultivars

are still very specific to their individual climatic

requirements.

0027 Some cultivars have been bred or selected that

extend production into marginally colder subtropical

climates; e.g., satsuma mandarins in Japan, China,

Korea, and New Zealand are the hardiest. Clemen-

tines have a low heat requirement, and many current

cultivars mature early to mid-season, but the King

group is the most tender, with a high heat require-

ment, and tends to mature late.

0028At the other extreme, mandarins are amongst the

most heat-resistant of citrus fruits, comparing favor-

ably with grapefruit. For the development of good

flavor, some hotter weather at the end of the growing

season seems essential. However, exposed fruit can

become sunburnt.

0029As with other yellow/orange rind citrus, mandarins

grown in tropical climates are less successful com-

mercially than other types and will not develop a

normal full rind color but are usually harvested and

marketed with green or only pale-colored rinds, al-

though the fruit may be sufficiently mature to harvest

and eat.

0030While site selection and soil management are influ-

enced by local climate, some cultural practices also

may modify harmful effects, including cold protec-

tion, soil drainage, irrigation, and windbreaks. How-

ever, these practices cannot completely overcome

major differences and unfavorable climatic effects.

Some of these effects include regular severe frosts,

poor rind color development, variable maturity, fruit

form, and pest and disease incidence, when produc-

tion is under extreme or regular unfavorable pro-

duction conditions.

Production Statistics

0031Commercial citrus production has been recorded by

the FAO in over 100 different countries and through-

out six regions – Africa, North America, South Amer-

ica, Asia, Europe (Mediterranean), and Oceania. The

world’s mandarin production has been gradually in-

creasing from a 10-year average of 8745  10

tonnes

in 1980–81 to 1988–89, to a significantly larger aver-

age total crop (allowing for annual seasonal vari-

ations, especially the common alternate cropping) in

the four 1995/96–1998/99 seasons of 14 865  10

tonnes, as shown in Table 1.

0032The largest mandarin growing areas are located in

the northern hemisphere, where 90% of recorded

world production occurs, and include the important

growing countries like China, the Mediterranean

region, with 26% (e.g., Spain, Italy, Morocco,

Egypt, and Turkey), Japan, and Korea. The southern

hemisphere, with only 10%, is a relatively minor

growing region, as in Brazil and Argentina, with

smaller plantings in Australia and South Africa.

Omitted from the FAO statistics is the known and

projected mandarin production in Pakistan of

547  10

tonnes in 2005.

0033Many countries like Japan, China, India, Mexico,

and Asia have important local or domestic markets

for their fresh mandarin fruits, overall in 1998–99

CITRUS FRUITS/Mandarins 1373

with 77% of total world production, with only 15%

exported and 8% processed. However current and

future export marketing will be important markets

for Spain (currently the largest exporter), Morocco,

Turkey, and China (Tables 1 and 2).

0034 It is interesting to note that in the two largest citrus-

producing countries (Brazil and the USA), mandarins

are a relatively minor type produced with only 4 and

3%, respectively, of their total production. In other

countries, mandarins are significantly more import-

ant, and these are discussed below.

China

0035Plantings have expanded rapidly in China (Figure 1)

over the past three decades, and current nonbearing

planting will increase production further. China is

now the largest producer of mandarins in the world

(totaling 68% of its total citrus production). Newer

plantings are mainly satsuma cultivars (with over

40% including Wenzhou mikan), replacing older

and previously more popular Tankan, Ponkan,

Hongju, Zhuju, and small fruit local cultivars

Nanfengmiju and Bendizau. Over 90% of manda-

rin production is consumed in the huge domestic

market as fresh fruit (sometime ex-local storage),

but with an increasing 4% processed (canned seg-

ments) and 3% exported. These exports are expected

to increase in the long term, especially to Pacific Rim

countries.

Spain

0036Spain is the largest citrus producer in the Mediterra-

nean region, and the fourth largest in the world, and

for mandarins, it is the second largest producer (after

tbl0001 Table 1 World mandarin production trends

Year Totalproduction

10

tonnes

Exported

10

tonnes

Processed

10

tonnes

1980–81 to 1988–89

average

8 745 1 236 1 055

1995–96 14 350 2 052 876

1996–97 14 133 2 205 1 256

1997–98 16 516 2 406 1 508

1998–99 14 463 2 191 1 206

Four-year average 14 865 (82%) 2 214 (12%) 1 212 (6%)

Source: FAO (1999) Citrus Fruit Fresh and Processed, Annual Statistics,Tables

1^10 and 16^20. Rome: Food and Agriculture Organization; USDA (1999)

World Fresh Citrus Situation, pp. 18–32. In: World Horticultural Trade and US

Export Opportunities, Circular Series FHORTH, Foreign Agricultural Service.

tbl0002 Table 2 Fresh mandarin crop production and utilization (with respective percentages), and the main producing countries throughout

the world in 1998–99

Region/country Totalproduction 10

tonnes (%) Exports 10

tonnes (%) Processed 10

tonnes (%)

Northern hemisphere

USA 401 15 175

Mediterranean region

Greece 85 25 3

Italy 443 26 83

Spain 1 749 1 102 296

Israel 73 30 18

Algeria 111

Morocco 425 222 10

Tunisia 38

Egypt 360 10 5

Turkey 372 137 20

Subtotal (Mediterranean) 3 827 (26%) 1 632 430

Japan 1 439 5 127

Cuba 6

Mexico 190 2 19

China 6 022 190 250

Korea 508 8 5

Subtotal (northern) 13 031 (90%) 2 061 1 006

Southern hemisphere

Argentina 340 30 30

Brazil 762 8 170

Uruguay 77

Subtotal (southern) 1 431 (10%) 130 200

Total (world) 14 463 (77%) 2 191 (15%) 1 206 (8%)

Data from: FAO (1999) Citrus Fruit Fresh and Processed, Annual Statistics,Tables 1^10 and 16^20. Rome: Food and Agriculture Organization; USDA (1999)

World Fresh Citrus Situation, pp. 18–32. In: World Horticultural Trade and US Export Opportunities, Circular Series FHORTH, Foreign Agricultural Service.

1374 CITRUS FRUITS/Mandarins

China), but the largest exporter of fresh fruit. Plant-

ings in Spain continue to expand (totaling 270 000 ha

in 1995). Main citrus types are oranges 55%, manda-

rins 31%, and lemons 13% of these plantings. Of the

21.7 million trees planted between 1990 and 1995,

the main mandarin cultivar demand trends (in thou-

sands of trees planted) were:

0037 Satsuma Okitsu 1575

0038 Owari 219

0039 Clausellina 131

0040 Clementine Marisol 1925

0041 Clemenules 1900

0042 Hernandina 991

0043 Mandarins Nova 1391

0044 Fortune 1122

0045 Ellendale 443.

See Figures 2 and 3.

Japan

0046Japan is currently third in world mandarin produc-

tion, although it has experienced a significant decline

in recent decades. Mandarins total 92% of Japanese

citrus production, with only minor plantings of other

citrus types. Most of this production is now in the

form of satsuma cultivars (unshiu or mikan) and has

generally replaced other older cultivars like Natsumi-

kan, Hassaku, and Iyokan. As the satsuma group has

evolved, a large number of distinct new cultivars have

emerged and become important initially locally, but

more recently also throughout the world. A large

range of different satsuma cultivars are now avail-

able, varying from very early (Goko Wase) to mid-

season and late-maturity periods, i.e., Hashimoto,

Miyagawa, Okitsu (Figure 2) and Miho (Wase);

Hayashi, Owari, Nankan No. 20, Seto (mid);

Aoshim, Juman and Otsu No. 4 (late). This enables

satsuma fruit to be harvested over about 3 months,

although culture in plastic/heated tunnels will ad-

vance the season by up to 4 months. Coupled with

fig0002 Figure 2 Okitsu satsuma has become an important new culti-

var in many countries.

fig0001 Figure 1 Mandarin plantings in China on terraced hillsides.

fig0003Figure 3 (see color plate 32) Harvesting Fortune mandarins for

export in Spain.

CITRUS FRUITS/Mandarins 1375