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with whey. Mechanized production for the con-

tinuous manufacture of Ricotta cheese involves

adjustment of the pH of the whey–milk mixture to

6.9–7.1 with NaOH, heating the blend to 88–92



and injecting in-line an appropriate quantity of salt

and acid. Again, the target pH is 5.9–6.1. The hot

acidified whey–milk blend is pumped into the bottom

of a V-shaped vat, and the resulting curd is collected

mechanically from the top of the vat into nylon mesh

for the curd to drain. It is than transferred to perfor-

ated hoops, cooled, and packaged for sale.

Chhana

0022 Chhana is a Ricotta-like cheese produced in India

from hot milk by direct acidification. Although

Chhana is an intermediate material for producing

Paneer and various confectionery foods, the product

standards for Chhana and Paneer are identical.

According to Indian Pure Foods Act, Chhana (or

Paneer) is defined as a product obtained from cow

or buffalo milk or a combination thereof by precipi-

tation with sour milk, lactic acid, or citric acid; it

should contain not more than 70% moisture, and

the milk fat content should not be less than 50% of

the dry matter. Skim milk Chhana or skim milk

Paneer is the product obtained from cow or buffalo

skim milk by precipitation with sour milk, lactic acid,

or citric acid; it should contain not more than 70%

moisture, and the milk fat content of the product

should not exceed 13.0% of the dry matter.

0023 Manufacturing method The production of Chhana

basically involves the precipitation of casein along

with fat and entrapped water-soluble components of

milk (lactose, whey proteins, minerals, vitamins) by

the addition of an acidulant to milk at a near-boiling

temperature, followed by removal of whey from the

curd. Basically, Chhana is made by a batch process,

but a continuous process may be adapted from the

continuous process for Ricotta, as described above.

0024 The texture of Chhana varies from smooth and

pasty to crumbly. It is an intermediate starting mater-

ial for the preparation of indigenous Indian dairy

confectionery products. The preferred milk for

Chhana is cows’ milk. In Chhana production, press-

ing of the curd is restricted to pressing caused by

gravity after draining of the whey in a cheesecloth/

muslin bag. A longer draining time yields a hard

product. Depending on its end use, Chhana may be

soft or hard. For example, the confectionery product,

Rasogolla, requires soft Chhana, whereas the confec-

tion, Sandesh, requires the hard variety. These two

confections utilize the majority of Chhana production,

and optimum functionality is required in each case.

0025Chhana is made in kettles. Cows’ milk is brought to

near boiling, and an appropriate acidulant is added

quickly to the hot milk to bring the pH of the mixture

to 5.4. The curd settles to the bottom, and whey is

removed by filtration through a strainer lined with

cheesecloth. The curd is then cooled in running tap

water. Chhana can be used to make sweetmeats and

other Indian confections. The coagulants used are

lime or lemon juice, vinegar, citric acid, lactic acid,

fermented milk, or whey. A solution of citric acid

(0.5–1.5%) or lactic acid (1–2%) is appropriate to

lower the pH of hot milk to 5.4. An interaction be-

tween the temperature of coagulation and final pH is

observed in terms of obtaining the best yield and

quality of Chhana. For cows’ milk, a temperature of



C at pH 5.4 is optimum, whereas for buffalo

milk, 70



C at pH 5.7 is desirable. A higher coagula-

tion temperature imparts graininess and hardness to

the texture, whereas lower temperatures result in a

sticky Chhana, which drains too slowly. Chhana is an

extremely perishable food product, and at ambient

temperature, its quality deteriorates within a day or

two and is used soon after production. Under refriger-

ation, the shelf-life is extended to 6 days.

0026Two important confections based on Chhana are

Sandesh and Rassogolla.

0027Preparation of Sandesh Chhana is thoroughly

kneaded to obtain a homogeneous mass. Ground

sugar (30 parts) is added to Chhana (100 parts), and

the mixture is cooked in a vessel until the confection

stops sticking to the surface of a griddle. At this point,

the hot mass is poured into molds or into a pan to

cool and set. Cardamom and other flavors may be

added prior to setting. Upon cooling, the surface of

the confection may be sprinkled with cracked pista-

chio nuts and cut into the desired shapes and sizes.

The typical composition of Sandesh is 24% moisture,

0.45% titratable acidity, 14.9% protein, 10.7% fat,

and 47% sugar.

0028Preparation of Rasogolla Rasogolla, a widely popu-

lar sweetmeat in India, is the result of a puffing

phenomenon in which milk protein, primarily the

caseins, acquires a foam-type structure under special

cooking conditions in sugar syrup. Accordingly, the

product is a spongy, round ball, 2–4 cm in diameter,

suspended in sugar syrup. Occasionally, the shape

may be cylindrical. In this process, Rasogolla absorbs

sugar syrup, providing a succulent, juicy texture. The

ultrastructure of the product is stable for years, as

evidenced in canned products, and the spongy texture

may even be accentuated to give a variety called

Sponge Rasogolla.

1096 CHEESES/Soft and Special Varieties

0029 Most large manufacturers of Rasogolla in India

prefer to use only Chhana to knead and prepare the

dough. However, some sweetmakers knead together

100 g of Chhana, 0.7 g of cream of wheat, 5.2 g of

white wheat flour, and 12 mg of baking soda. The

dough is portioned and rolled into balls (10–20 g

each) and cooked in a medium consisting of 50%

sugar, 17% whey, and 33% water. The pH of the

cooking solution is adjusted to 6.8 with Ca(OH)

Cooking is completed in 25 min. The cooked balls are

conditioned inwater at30–35



C for 10 min, immersed

initially in 59–60



Brix syrup and finally in 50



Brix

syrup, and then refrigerated. They may be canned to

enhance their shelf-life and to extend marketing range.

Rasogolla contains 38–55% moisture, 37–48% sugar,

5.3–5.7% fat, and 5.0–5.5% protein.

Paneer

0030 It is estimated that about 4–5% of the total milk

produced in India is converted into Paneer. The dis-

tinctive texture of Paneer is obtained by the applica-

tion of low pressure to the cheese in hoops, followed

by immersion of the blocks in chilled water. The

cooling step results in reabsorption of some water,

which imparts a characteristic springy and rubbery

body to Paneer blocks. Paneer offers outstanding

nonmelt functionality. Its ability to withstand frying

temperatures makes it suitable for use in Indian cuis-

ine. Paneer is suitable for the preparation of fried

cheese snacks. It may be included as an entre

e item

in a meal, with or without a suitable batter and

breadcrumbs. Such items resemble fish sticks, chicken

nuggets, or tofu chunks.

0031 Manufacturing Method Buffalo milk containing

6% fat and 9.5% SNF is preferred for Paneer produc-

tion. The milk is heated in a plate heat exchanger to

85–90



C and pumped into a water/steam jacketed

cheese vat. By circulating cold water in the jacket,

milk is cooled to 70–75



C in about 10 min prior to

acid blending. Sufficient citric acid (1% solution),

warmed to 70



C, is gently but quickly blended with

the milk (within 1 min) to reduce the pH to 5.3–5.4.

Normally, it requires about 1.8–2.0 g of citric acid to

coagulate 1 kg of milk. At this point, clear greenish

yellow whey separates, and the curd sinks to the

bottom. The coagulation temperature influences the

moisture content of Paneer; a temperature of 70



gives the best organoleptic quality as well as the most

desirable frying quality in terms of shape retention,

softness, and integrity maintenance. The coagulated

milk is allowed to separate into curd and clear whey.

After 10 min, the curd chunks sink to the bottom. At

this point, a strainer is fitted into the outlet of the vat.

The whey drainage valve is then opened, and the

whey flows into a surge tank partitioned by a strainer

to retain any curd fines that escape from the vat. Hot

whey accumulates in the second section of the surge

tank from which it is pumped out, cooled to 4



and stored in a whey tank for further processing.

The curd is transferred to molds/hoops lined with

cheesecloth. For culinary purposes, unflavored and

unsalted Paneer is traditionally used. The paneer

hoops are pressed with a hydraulic press to exert a

low pressure (10 kPa) on the curd. The pressing time

is generally 10–15 min, after which time, the wrapped

block of paneer is ejected from the hoop for quick

cooling by immersion for 1–2 h in cold water (4



containing 3–5 mg per kilogram of chlorine. Cooled

blocks are then mechanically cut into convenient

retail size and packaged. A yield of 18–20 kg of

Paneer per 100 kg of standardized milk is expected.

(See Buffalo: Milk.)

Latin American Cheeses

0032Latin American White (LAW) cheeses, known by

various names, are produced throughout Mexico,

Central and South America, and the Caribbean

Islands. These cheeses are made from whole milk,

skim milk, cream, or a mixture. Queso blanco and

Queso del pais are the only varieties produced by

direct acidification of hot milk with vinegar or fruit

juice. Rennet is used for the coagulation in Queso de

prensas in El Salvador, Mexico, and Venezuela,

Queso estera in Colombia, and queijo Minas in

Brazil. Starter cultures are also used and allowed to

generate a high acidity. LAW cheeses are white,

creamy, highly salted, and acidic in flavor. They

have a body and texture similar to young high-mois-

ture Cheddar, and can be sliced for sandwich use. The

fresh or dry ‘Criollo’ product is grated or macerated

to accompany beans, rice, or tortilla (flat corn bread).

These cheeses can be used as a snack, in salads and as

a cooking cheese in casserole dishes, grated for use in

pizza and other foods, or included as an ingredient in

the manufacture of processed cheese. Like paneer,

LAW cheese can be made to be resistant to melting

at frying temperatures. However, these are highly

salted products, unlike paneer.

0033Manufacturing method Directly acidified Queso

blanco is produced from whole/part skim milk by

heating to 80–88



C, holding for 15 min, followed

by quick addition of diluted vinegar/citric acid solu-

tion to bring the pH to 5.3–5.7. The acidified milk is

stirred gently for 2–3 min, and the curd is allowed to

settle to the bottom of the vat. As for paneer, both

casein and heat-denatured whey proteins are retained

in the curd. After 15 min, the settled curd is recovered

CHEESES/Soft and Special Varieties 1097

by whey drainage, and up to 5% salt is mixed in. The

salted curd is soft and dry, and forms large chunks; it

is pressed overnight in molds to yield a more cohesive

product. The blocks are refrigerated and packaged.

0034 The yield of Queso blanco varies from 11 to 14.6%,

depending on the moisture content. It typically con-

tains 51–57% moisture, 18–22% protein, 15–17%

fat, and 3.5–4.5% salt. A drier variety suitable for

maturation may have 35–39% moisture, and a hard

variety may have an even lower moisture (27–32%).

See also: Acids: Properties and Determination; Natural

Acids and Acidulants; Cheeses: Types of Cheese; Starter

Cultures Employed in Cheese-making; Quarg and

Fromage Frais; Dietary Importance

Further Reading

Aneja RP (1992) Traditional delicacies: A compendium. In:

Gupta PR (ed.) Dairy India. Edited by Delhi: Dairy India

Yearbook.

Chandan RC (1982) Fermented dairy products. In: Reed G

(ed.) Prescott & Dunn’s Industrial Microbiology, 4th

edn. Wetport, CT: AVI.

Chandan RC (1991) Cheeses made by direct acidification.

In: Robinson RK and Tamine AY (eds) Feta and Related

Cheeses. London: Ellis Horwood.

Chandan RC (1997) Dairy-based Ingredients. St. Paul,

MN: Eagan Press.

Emmons DB and Tuckey SL (1967) Cottage Cheese and

Other Cultured Milk Products. Pfizer Cheese Mono-

graphs, vol. III. New York: Chas. Pfizer & Co.

Kosikowski FV and Mistry VV (1997) Cheese and Fer-

mented Milk Foods, 3rd edn. Westport, CT: FV Kosi-

kowski LLC.

Mathur BN, Rao KVSS and Zanzad PN (1993) Modern

trends in paneer manufacture. In: Potty VH and Mulky

MJ (eds) Food Processing. New Delhi: Oxford and IBH

Pulishing Co.

Torres N and Chandan RC (1981) Latin American White

cheese – A review. Journal of Dairy Science 64: 552–558.

White Brined Varieties

M H Abd El-Salam, National Research Centre, Dokki,

Cairo, Egypt

Introduction

0001 It is evident from ancient literature (Homer, 1184 bc)

and archeological findings (tomb Hor Aha, Saqqara,

Egypt) that this group of cheeses is probably the

origin of various types of cheeses known now.

0002The production of brined (pickled) cheeses has long

been limited to the Mediterranean and southeast

European Countries. Nowadays, the international

recognition of brined cheeses and the dynamic

growth in their demand have extended their produc-

tion to other countries, including Denmark, Ireland,

the UK, the USA, New Zealand, and Australia. Feta

cheese is the most significant type of brined cheese

marketed in the world. The consumption of brined

cheese varies between countries, but the highest

per- capita consumption of Feta cheese is recorded

in Greece (12 kg).

Characteristic Properties

0003Preservation in brine (pickle) is the main characteris-

tic of this group of cheeses. The brine serves to

preserve the cheese and prevent it drying out. Conse-

quently, the composition and properties of these

cheeses and those of the brine are interrelated.

0004Brined cheeses are generally rindless and are pro-

duced in the form of blocks of various shapes and

sizes (cubes, bricks, or segments) covered in salt brine

or whey.

0005Brined cheeses are either ripened in wooden barrels

and then marketed in tins or packed and ripened

directly in retail packages. They are marketed fresh

or after storage of up to one year.

0006Their clean, acidic and salty taste, and sharp flavor

characterize brined cheeses. The high salt content of

the cheese and brine allows for a good keeping quality

in hot climates without the need for cold storage.

0007The color of brined cheeses is pure white, as they

are traditionally made from ewes’, goats’ or buffa-

loes’ milk, which are known for their whitish color.

0008Although all brined cheeses are subjected to the

same practice of storage in pickle for extended

periods, they differ significantly in their manufactur-

ing technologies, composition, and properties.

Classification

0009As shown in Table 1, brined cheeses include soft and

semihard varieties, and nearly all of them are made by

rennet coagulation. In general, brined cheeses can be

made from different kinds of milk, but sheeps’ milk is

preferred for most of these varieties. (See Buffalo:

Milk; Goat: Milk; Milk: Liquid Milk for the Con-

sumer; Sheep: Milk.)

Methods of Manufacture

Traditional Methods

0010Feta cheese Normally, ewes’ milk is used, but a

mixture with goats’ milk (up to 30% goats’ milk in

1098 CHEESES/White Brined Varieties

mixture) can be used. The milk is heated to 65



C for

30 min (optional) and then cooled to 32–33



C; 1–3%

starter (Lactococcus lactis plus Lactococcus lactis

subsp. cremoris) is then added (optional); 20–30 ml

of rennet (preferably lamb or kid rennet) per 100 l are

used to coagulate the milk in 50–150 min; the curd is

then cut into 2–3-cm cubes and left in the whey for

10–15 min, after which it is scooped into metal

hoops, 20 cm deep, and left for 1 h; the hoops are

transferred to a room (16–18



C), and the surface of

the curd is lightly salted; the cheese is turned upside

down and left for 20 h; the curd is then cut into pieces

(different sizes), placed in wooden barrels in layers,

and dry salted with 3% coarse salt over a period of 3

days; and the barrels are topped up with 5% brine

and left for 15 days, prior to being transferred to cold

storage (4



C) until marketed. (See Lactic Acid Bac-

teria; Starter Cultures.)

0011 Telemea cheese Whole milk (usually cows’ milk) is

heated to 60–68



C for 20–30 min, 0.5% starter

(mesophilic bacteria plus Lactobacillus casei)is

added at 28–31



C, followed by 25–30 ml of rennet

per 100 l of milk, and held at 30–34



C for 60 min,

and the curd is transferred into cheesecloth in layers.

The resultant curd is cut crossways with a long knife

and pressed for 2 h. The cheese is cut into blocks and

immersed in a salt bath (18–22% NaCl) at 15–16



overnight, and layered in tins, which are then com-

pleted (filled) with acid (1.3–2% lactic acid), salted

(4–5% NaCl) whey for 1 month, then stored at 5–



C. (See Whey and Whey Powders: Production and

Uses.)

0012White pickled cheese Whole milk is flash-heated to



Cor68



C for 10 min (optional), and a starter

(sour milk or mesophilic bacteria 0.5–1.0%) is added

followed by rennet (25–30 ml per 100 l of milk at 30–



C) to complete coagulation in 60–70 min; the

curd is ladled into a cheesecloth, which is laid over a

wooden frame, placed over a drainage table; the

cheese is pressed by tightening the cloth and by the

use of weights; the curd is cut into cubes (10 cm

) and

immersed in saturated brine overnight; and the cheese

is packed into barrels or tins filled with salted whey

(8–12% NaCl).

0013Brinza Milk is coagulated by rennet at 25–32



C for

40–90 min, after which the curd is transferred to the

drainage table for cutting, tuning, and pressing (whey

is removed in 2 h), cut into rectangular blocks (1 kg)

and salted in brine at low temperature (10–12



C).

The cheese is then packed into wooden barrels or

lacquered tins filled with brine or salted whey and

stored at 4



Cor12–20



0014Bli-Sir-O-Kriskana Starter (0.1% Lactococcus lac-

tis plus Lactobacillus casei) is added to the milk,

followed by rennet (20–30 ml per 100 l at 30–32



in order to achieve coagulation in 70–90 min. The

tbl0001 Table 1 Classification of brined cheeses

Cheese Country of origin Milk used

Rennet-coagulated

Soft cheeses

Feta type (salting of curd)

Feta Greece S, S plus G, C

UF-feta Denmark C, R

Telemea Romania S, B, C

White pickled Eastern Europe S, C

Bli-Sir-O-Kriskana Former Yugoslavia S

Bajalo (Belo Salamurene Sirene) Bulgaria S, C

Brinza Former USSR, Bulgaria C

Chenakh Former USSR S

Akiavi Syria, Turkey S, G

Domiati type (salting of milk)

Domiati Egypt B, C, R

UF-Domiati Egypt C, R

Dani Egypt S

Semihard cheese

Halloumi Cyprus S, G, C

Medaffara/Magdola Sudan, Syria S, B, C, R

Shenkalish Syria S

Acid-coagulated

Mish Egypt Skim milk

S: sheep; G: goat; C: cow; B: buffalo; R: recombined milk; UF: ultrafiltration.

CHEESES/White Brined Varieties 1099

curd is cut horizontally and vertically, and left for 15–

20 min, recut into smaller cubes and ladled into a

cheesecloth, pressed for 1–4 h, then cut into cubes

(10 cm

) for dry salting or immersion in brine (20–

25% NaCl) for 10–20 h at 12–15



C. The cheese is

packed in parchment-lined casks or tins completed

with brine (10–12% NaCl) and held at 12–15



Cto

ripen in one month and then stored at 10



0015 Bjalo (Belo Salamureno Sirene) Milk is heated at



C for 10 min, then cooled at 31



C; 0.1–0.3%

starter (Lactococcus lactis plus Lactobacillus casei)

is added followed by 20 ml of rennet per 100 l (coagu-

lation time: 60–90 min). The curd is cut into cubes

(2–3cm

), which are ladled into a cheesecloth, then

cut into strips, and the cloth tied over the curd. It

is then left to drain, pressed for 4–5 h at 14–16



cut into pieces (12  12 cm), immersed in saturated

brine or dry-salted for 24 h, and packed into metal or

plastic drums filled with brine (10–12% NaCl). The

cheese is ripened for 2–4 weeks and stored at 4–8



0016 Domiati Dry salt (5–15%) is added to the milk and

stirred until dissolved. The salted milk is then strained

through cheesecloth, heated to 37–42



C, and rennet

(30–40 ml per 100 l) added to achieve coagulation in

2–3 h. The curd is scooped into wooden frames lined

with cheesecloth, placed over a wooden board on a

draining table and allowed to drain for 3–4 h. The

curd is then broken and pressed to achieve complete

drainage in 16–24 h. The cheese is cut into blocks,

wrapped in cheesepaper, and packed into 2–20-l tins

filled with salted whey (from the same cheese) and

stored at room temperature.

0017 Halloumi A sufficient quantity of rennet is added to

sheep’s milk to coagulate the milk at 34



C within 7–

8 min. The curd is cut after 30 min into grains (1 cm

)

and left for 10 min, stirred gently for 10 min, scalded

at 60



C for 15 min, transferred to hoops, then

pressed with weights (3 kg per kilogram of cheese)

for 35 min. The pressed curd is cut into small blocks

(10  10  3 cm), transferred to deproteinized whey,

then heated to 90–92



C for 30 min. The cheese is

then drained and sprinkled with dry salt and dried

Mentha viridis before conservation in brine.

0018 Medaffara Rennet is added to raw milk at 32–37



for 40–60 min and left to ripen (30–60 min). After the

curd cutting and partial removal of the whey, the

cubes are left to ripen in the whey until they form a

slim block about 2 m long. The ripened curd is then

kneaded in hot water at 80



C for 10 min, after which

black cumin spice (Nigella sativa) is added; the curd is

then shaped, while hot, to form a cord that is braided

and then brined.

Industrial Scale Methods

0019Equipment and process development Rapid devel-

opments in the technology of brined cheeses have

been achieved during the last two decades; the appli-

cation of ultrafiltration (UF) in the manufacture of

feta cheese is one of the most outstanding develop-

ments. Industrial-scale production of brined cheeses

is based on modifications of traditional methods. The

main differences between the traditional and indus-

trial scale methods are:

0020Type of milk: Cows’ milk is usually used on an

industrial scale. This requires the treatment of

milk fat in order to retain the white color of brined

cheeses. Blue–green dye (e.g., chlorophyl) is added

mainly for this purpose. Decolorization of pure

milk fat by heat treatment/use of oxidants is

practiced to produce a special milk fat for recom-

bined brined cheeses.

0021Heat treatment: Milk is normally pasteurized

before cheese making to ensure public safety, to

minimize quality defects, and to allow the cheese

to retain more moisture.

0022Homogenization: This step is essential for the

manufacture of brined cheeses from recombined

milk. It also improves the fat retention and smooth-

ness of cheese from fresh milk. Cheese from

homogenized milk appears whiter in color.

0023Additives: Mesophilic and thermophilic lactic

starters, or a combination of these, are used.

Also, lipases, acidulants (glucono-d-lactone), and

calcium chloride are frequently used.

0024Ultrafiltration: Most of the progress in brined

cheeses has been achieved through the use of ultra-

filtration techniques. Such techniques result in a

substantial increase (20–30%) in cheese yield,

saving manpower, additives, and energy consump-

tion. Also, the compositional quality of the product

can be easily controlled.

0025Packaging: New packaging materials and equip-

ments are used. In addition to tins, laminated

paper cartons (tetrabricks), special polymeric

films, and rigid plastic containers are now being

used in retail packaging.

0026Several systems have been developed for the con-

tinuous manufacture of brined cheeses from milk or

partially ultrafiltered milk using all or part of the

following processes and mechanized equipment.

0027Dosing equipment. For continuous blending of

milk/UF retentate with various additives, i.e., a

starter culture, coagulant, or decolorizing agent.

1100 CHEESES/White Brined Varieties

Such equipment consists of metering devices and

in-line static mixers.

0028 Coagulator/cutting devices.

0029 Molding and dewheying.

0030 Bulk packaging, salting, and brining.

0031 UF-cast feta cheese Two systems are in use for the

production of UF-cast feta cheese:

0032 Standardized pasteurized milk (12.5% total solids

(TS), 3.5% fat) is ultrafiltered to give a retentate of

37–38% TS. The retentate is then pasteurized,

homogenized, and pumped from a balance tank

by means of a finely controlled, positive pump to

the filling, mixing, and dosing aggregate. At the

same time, precise amounts of rennet, lipase,

NaCl, and acidulant (glucono-d-lactone and

blue phosphoric acid) are dosed into the con-

centrate before it reaches the filling head. The

concentrate is filled into laminated ‘tetra bricks’

(250–500 g), or it can be packed into a special

polymeric film and encased in a rectangular

carton.

0033 The UF-milk retentate (37–38% TS) is pasteurized,

homogenized, and directed into an intermediate

tank. After cooling to 30



C, 3% mesophilic starter

and lipase (4–8 g of pregastric lipase powder/

100 kg) are added. No time is allowed for acid

development to take place. Rennet is dosed in-

line into the retentate before casting in tins (10/

20 l). Filling takes place in three stages as each

layer is coagulated separately. The tins are then

taken to the portioning section, where the cheese

is cut by a cutting machine equipped with vertical

knives. The cheese is salted with 4–5% NaCl,

which is dosed and spread automatically on the

top of the cheese; the tins are then closed and

stored in a cold room until marketed.

0034 UF-structure feta Continuous coagulation of reten-

tate with 26% TS takes place in a coagulator,

followed by continuous cutting of the coagulum.

The cheese grains are treated in the permeate (from

the UF process), in which syneresis takes place. The

cheese grains are filled into molds, whey is drained

off, and the finished cheese is cut into blocks, filled

into tins, and salted with dry salt, as described for cast

feta.

0035 UF-Domiati Standardized pasteurized milk (12.5%

TS, 3.5% fat) is concentrated by UF to 35% TS. The

retentate is homogenized, heated to 75



C for 1 min,

and cooled to 34



C; 1% mesophilic starter, rennet

(3 g of rennet powder/100 kg), and 3–4% NaCl are

added and treated as follows:

0036The retentate is poured into stainless steel trays

(50 50 10 cm) and left to coagulate. The cheese

is then cut manually into cubes (0.5 kg), wrapped

in polyethylene sheet and packed into a 1-kg

rigid plastic container (consumer package) or in

10/20-1 tins; the containers or tins are filled with

5% salted permeate and then closed.

0037The retentate is cast in plastic containers (750 g)

placed in a moving conveyer in a constant tempera-

ture tunnel (40



C), in which there is complete

coagulation before the package leaves the tunnel.

Salted brine (5% NaCl) is dosed, and packages

are sealed with aluminum foil and covered with a

plastic lid.

0038Recombined feta/Domiati cheeses Recombined

feta/Domiati cheeses are made from recombined

milk using either low-heat skim milk powder or

skim milk powder retentate and anhydrous milk

fat. Recombination is carried out in batches or

continuously depending on the scale of production.

Immediately after mixing, the recombined milk is

homogenized, heated, cooled, and made into cheese

as for fresh milk. Commercial pregastric lipase is

added to improve the acceptability of the product.

Changes in the Composition of Brined

Cheeses During Storage

0039Table 2 shows the average composition of several

brined cheeses. General factors affecting the compos-

ition of other cheese varieties apply also to brined

cheeses. These include the type of milk, heat treat-

ment received, and conditions and duration of stor-

age. In addition, storage in brine plays a special and

important role in determining the changes in compos-

ition of brined cheeses. This can be understood from

the following:

0040brine provides a very high water activity for stored

cheeses;

0041there is a continuous equilibrium in the distribution

of soluble constituents between cheese and brine;

0042there are ion-exchange equilibria between Na



in the brine and the ions in the cheese;

0043brine partially solubilizes the protein matrix of

cheese;

0044brine controls the cheese microflora; the surface

microflora are of limited significance.

In general, the changes occurring in brined cheeses

can be described as follows.

CHEESES/White Brined Varieties 1101

Moisture Content

0045 Depending on the initial moisture content, pH, and

concentration of brine, the moisture content of brined

cheeses decreases on storage. This is obvious in

Domiati cheese, where a 5–10% decrease in cheese

moisture is normally observed during storage.

Nitrogenous Constituents

0046 The different cheese proteins are subject to variable

proteolysis: a

-casein is extensively hydrolyzed, while

b- and p-w-casein are less affected. An increase in

the soluble nitrogenous constituents is normally ob-

served during storage of brined cheeses. These

compounds include peptides, amino acids, and am-

monia, but the formation of biogenic amines is very

limited.

Milk Fat

0047 The rennet used in brined cheeses traditionally con-

tained pregastric lipases, and in developed technolo-

gies, lipase is added. Lipolysis is therefore one of the

characteristics of brined cheeses. The mono- and di-

glyceride content of the cheese increases on storage

with the formation of variable free fatty acids. How-

ever, the volatile fatty acids of brined cheeses contain

a high percentage of acetic acid, originating from

microbial fermentations. (See Fatty Acids: Properties.)

Lactose

0048 Fresh brined cheeses retain variable quantities of lac-

tose, and those stored in salted whey have access to a

continuous supply of lactose during storage. It is not

surprising, therefore, to find measurable quantities of

lactose in brined cheeses throughout the storage

period. The presence of galactose in stored Domiati

cheese has been reported.

Mineral Constituents

0049 The calcium content of brined cheeses decreases as a

result of acid development and ion exchange with

NaCl in the brine; the phosphate content of cheese

also decreases during storage. Changes in Na

and



contents of cheese are dependent on: (1) the

concentration of the brine, (2) the initial NaCl con-

tent of cheese, and (3) any decrease in cheese moisture

during storage.

Vitamins

0050Vitamin A is stable, but thiamin, riboflavin, and nico-

tinic acid show a variable decrease in cheese stored in

tins. (See Niacin: Properties and Determination; Ret-

inol: Properties and Determination; Riboflavin: Prop-

erties and Determination; Thiamin: Properties and

Determination.)

Volatile Flavor Compounds

0051Brined cheeses develop a mixture of short-chain fatty

acids. Acetic acid is the major volatile fatty acid in

Domiati cheese, whereas in feta cheese, butyric acid

is present in significant quantities, particularly in

traditional feta. In feta cheese, several alcohols and

carbonyl compounds increase in concentration on

prolonged storage.

Texture and Structure

0052The textures of cast UF and traditional brined cheeses

are significantly different. However, the texture of

both is affected by several factors including homogen-

ization, amount of rennet used, pH, NaCl content,

and storage period/conditions. Generally, brined

cheeses retain a softer texture during ripening that is

related mainly to proteolysis and the level of whey

proteins in cheese.

0053Electron microscopic examination of feta and

Domiati cheeses indicates that the internal structure

of fresh cheese is composed of a framework of spher-

ical casein aggregates, held together by bridges and

enclosing fat. During storage in brine, the casein ag-

gregates in Domiati cheese disintegrate into smaller

spherical particles, forming a loose structure. The

casein particles in Feta cheese coalesce as particles

cling to one another, forming larger clumps than in

Domiati cheese. The changes in the protein matrix

tbl0002 Table 2 Average composition of some brined cheeses

Cheese Moisture (%) Fat/drymatter (%) Totalprotein (%) NaCl (%) pH

Feta 48–54 48–52 4–5 4.3–4.6

Telemea 55 48–51 3–5 4.4–4.7

Bjalo 58–60 27–31 10–12 3–4

Brinza 58 45–50 4–10

Domiati (fresh) 60 40 8–10 6.6

Domiati (3 months) 54 45–50 6–8 3.7–4.2

Halloumi 35–48 38–50 24–30 2–5 5.3–6.1

Medaffara 53–54 17–22 21–24 5.1

1102 CHEESES/White Brined Varieties

during storage are generally responsible for the

smooth body of ripened brined cheeses. These

changes are likely to arise from (1) the partial loss

of calcium from the cheese matrix into the brine

and (2) continuous proteolysis of a

-casein, known

for its important role in linking the cheese protein

network.

Microbiology

Microorganisms Present

0054 Lactic acid bacteria are dominant in Domiati cheese,

Streptococci during the early stage of pickling, and

later Lactobacilli. Streptococcus faecalis, Lacto-

coccus lactis, Lactobacillus casei, Lactobacillus

plantarum, Lactobacillus brevis, and Lactobacillus

fermeti are the most common Streptococci and Lacto-

bacilli present in Domiati cheese. Several nonlactic

bacteria and yeasts are also found.

0055 The predominant lactic acid bacteria in other white

brined cheese are Streptococci (S. faecalis, S. faecium,

S. durans), Leuconostoc (L. dextrerincum) and Lacto-

bacilli (Lb. plantarum, Lb. casei, Lb. brevis). The

principal psychrotrophs found are from the genera

Pseudomonus, Aeromonas and Rhodotorula.

Salt-resistant yeasts growing on the surface of feta

cheese during ripening may contribute to ripening.

Effect of Manufacturing and Storage Conditions

0056 Raw-milk cheese generally has higher bacterial

counts than the pasteurized-milk cheese during early

stages of ripening, but both cheeses have similar

counts thereafter. The total bacterial count of Dom-

iati cheese increases rapidly, reaching a maximum

after a week of manufacture, and then declines.

Streptococci are dominant in the early stages of pick-

ling and then replaced with Lactobacilli, or Lactoba-

cilli and Micrococci, in the later stages of ripening,

depending on the level of NaCl in cheese. Micrococci

and Lactobacilli dominate in Domiati cheese with a

high salt content.

0057 The number of aerobic, lactic, and proteolytic bac-

terial counts of feta cheese reaches a maximum after

5, 20, and 45 days, respectively, and then decreases

markedly at 3–4 months of storage. The lipolytic

count shows a slight increase during ripening and

storage.

0058 The fresh Hallomi cheese has very limited bacterial

counts, but these increase significantly during

storage. Spore formers contribute to this flora.

Survival of Harmful Organisms

0059Coliform bacteria are frequently found in white

brined cheeses in large numbers mainly due to the

use of raw milk and poor sanitary conditions during

small-scale cheese making. No less than 9.5% NaCl

should be added to the milk to suppress the growth

of coliforms in Domiati cheese from raw milk. The

presence of coliforms is responsible for the blowing

defect in white brined cheeses.

0060Staphylococcus aureus can tolerate 2.5–15% NaCl

in Domiati cheese. Also, Salmonella typhi can survive

for up to 16 days in Domiati cheese from milk con-

taining 10% NaCl. Brined cheeses are also good

media for the survival of Listeria monocytogenes

and Yersinia enterocolitica. Nocardia-like organisms

dominate the microflora of the surface slime defect

observed in Domiati cheese from raw milk. (See

Spoilage: Bacterial Spoilage; Yeasts in Spoilage.)

See also: Buffalo: Milk; Fatty Acids: Properties; Goat:

Milk; Lactic Acid Bacteria; Milk: Liquid Milk for the

Consumer; Sheep: Milk; Spoilage: Bacterial Spoilage;

Yeasts in Spoilage; Starter Cultures; Whey and Whey

Powders: Production and Uses

Further Reading

Abd El-Salam MH, El-Shibiny S and Fahmi AH (1976)

Domiati cheese. A review. New Zealand Journal of

Dairy Science and Technology 11: 57–61.

Abou-Donia SA (1986) Egyptian Domiati soft white

pickled cheese. New Zealand Journal of Dairy Science

and Technology 21: 167–190.

Fox PF (ed.) (1993) Cheese: Chemistry, Physics and Micro-

biology, vol. 2. London: Chapman & Hall.

IDF (1986) Proceedings of the IDF Seminar ‘Production

and Utilization of Ewe’s and Goat’s Milk’ Doc. 202.

Brussels: International Dairy Federation.

IDF (1990) Recombination of Milk and Milk Products.

Special Issue No. 9001. Brussels, Belgium: International

Dairy Federation.

Lloyd G and Ramshaw EH (1979) The manufacture of

Bulgarian style feta cheese. A review. Australian Journal

of Dairy Technology 34: 180–183.

Ottosen N (1988) Feta by the Application of UF. Silkeborg,

Denmark: APV Pasilac A/S.

Papademas P and Robinson RK (1998) Hallomi cheese: the

product and its characteristics. International Journal of

Dairy Technology 51: 98–103.

Renner E and Abd El-Salam MH (1991) Application of

Ultrafiltration in Dairy Industry. London: Elsevier

Science.

Robinson RK and Tamime AY (1991) Feta and Related

Cheeses. London: Ellis Horwood.

Scott R (1986) Cheese Making Practice, 2nd edn. London:

Elsevier Science.

CHEESES/White Brined Varieties 1103

Quarg and Fromage Frais

H Klostermeyer, Lehrstuhlfu

r Chemie der

Biopolymere, Freising-Weihenstephan, Germany

Introduction

0001 Acid fresh, unripened cheeses are produced through-

out the world, but consumption is extremely variable,

even within individual countries. Besides Israel

(c. 11 kg per head per annum), high consumption is

observed in central Europe (Poland, 10 kg; Germany,

9 kg), Iceland (7 kg), former Czech Republic and

France (5 kg), and Hungary and Austria (4 kg) (for

comparison: UK, 0.1 kg). About 30–40 different

types of unripened cheeses are mainly made from

cows’ milk, but also from ewes’ milk and especially

from goats’ milk, these latter products being rather

popular in the Mediterranean countries. A common

criterion for all cheeses of this class is the low pH value

and a calcium content of 0.6–0.9% in the dry matter.

0002 Historically, the lactic curd cheeses are mainly

byproducts of butter manufacture, i.e., they are pro-

duced from partly skimmed milk. Before 1888, the

separation of cream occurred by gravitation. The

milk was set at rest in a cool place in shallow pans,

during which the cream and the skimmed milk

became acid. After skimmed milk had clotted, the

coagulum was scrambled and drained of whey, either

in cloths or in bags. Sometimes the curd was pressed

or even washed to remove most of the whey. Hand-

ling of the lactic curd (quarg) was different in

individual countries. In central Europe, for example,

small cheeses were sometimes prepared from salted

quarg, either mold-ripened (Korbka

se, Grauka

se,

Schabziger, etc.) or smear-ripened with yellow-red-

dish smear-forming, wild-type coryneformes (Harzer

se, Mainzer Ka

se, Olmu

tzer Quargel, etc.), or

heated with a mild base (e.g., sodium hydrogen car-

bonate) and spiced to form cooked cheese. Originally,

all these types of cheese had a variable content of fat,

owing to the fact that creaming was more or less

incomplete before the acid coagulation of the milk

took place in the vats.

0003 After introduction of the milk centrifuge (separ-

ator) in 1888, sweet skimmed milk became available,

which could be used for the production of lactic as

well as rennet-coagulated cheeses. However, in most

countries, the consumption of lactic curd cheeses

decreased constantly because of their very limited

shelf-life (less than 2 days), their often unclean flavor,

bitterness due to proteolytic activity, and short

consistency. In addition, the rather high fat content

of the traditional products had made them much

more tasty than the new products made from pure

acid casein. Even in central Europe, where quark had

a long tradition, the product remained a homemade

one.

0004About the time of World War I, the taste of quarg

was improved by adding about 2% buttermilk

(which contains homofermentative lactic starters,

and heterofermentative, aroma-producing lactic acid

bacteria) as fermentation culture, e.g., starter to

skimmed milk, and by combining the acid-induced

formation of the curd with coagulation by renneting.

This not only caused a change in the consistency (acid

casein gels are hydrophilic, rennet-induced gels are

hydrophobic with a tendency to syneresis, especially

when heated (maximum 65



C)) but also permitted a

certain heat treatment of the curds which led to prod-

ucts with shelf-lives of up to a week (Dauerquark) at

temperatures below 15



C. This development enabled

the production and distribution of quarg outside the

home. At the same time, emigrants from Europe

introduced into the north-west of the USA a variant

of drained quark, namely cottage cheese, which

became very popular, at least in North America.

0005Up to that time, fresh cheeses were prepared from

unheated milk to avoid the precipitation of denatu-

rated whey proteins on to the casein, a change which

induces a higher water-binding capacity in the pro-

tein, and gives a very soft, smooth consistency to the

product. In former Federal Republic of Germany in

1951 it was required by law that milk used for unrip-

ened cheeses must be pasteurized (72–74



C for 20 s)

in order to avoid health risks. This led to a further

reduction in the level of dry matter in quarg, and the

new product, Speisequark, became very popular, par-

ticularly when enriched with cream. Up to that time,

quarg had been mainly used for cooking and baking,

but it then lost its cheese image and became a lactic

acid dairy product for direct consumption, either

sweet with fruit, or salty with herbs and spices.

0006The problem of limited shelf-life was overcome

by the development of special separators (up to

10 000 l h

1

) for quarg in the 1950s. It became

possible to produce Speisequark on a large scale in

enclosed sanitary production lines, avoiding reconta-

mination during packaging. The shelf-life of this

product was extended to 22 days (12



C), even with-

out adding preservatives. (In some countries, preser-

vatives such as sorbic acid and hydrocolloids are used

to prolong the shelf-life of fresh cheeses.) Within a

10–15-year period, consumption of the new type of

quarg increased in Germany about 10-fold, and

production lines handling 200 000 kg of milk per

day made the product a rather low-priced one.

1104 CHEESES/Quarg and Fromage Frais

Consequently, new developments were necessary to

overcome the resulting low profits of the dairies.

0007 In the middle of the 1970s, a product (Thermo-

quark) was developed which contained, besides the

caseins, all of the whey proteins of milk. They were

denatured by high-temperature heat treatment (82–



C for 5–6 min) of the milk prior to fermentation,

and special centrifuges were developed for the Ther-

moquark. Some manufacturers also started to add

denaturated whey protein concentrates – separated

from heated whey either by the ‘centriwhey’ process

or by ultrafiltration – to quarg. Since some dairies

added up to 30% whey proteins to fresh cheeses, the

International Dairy Federation and the German gov-

ernment limited the use of whey in fresh cheeses ‘up

to the natural whey protein content of the milk’, i.e.,

16–18% of the total milk protein. (See Casein and

Caseinates: Uses in the Food Industry; Membrane

Techniques: Principles of Ultrafiltration; Whey and

Whey Powders: Protein Concentrates and Fractions.)

0008 Direct concentration of sweet milk up to 18% dry

matter by ultrafiltration, fermentation, and curd for-

mation without whey drainage was studied exten-

sively for the production of quarg, but without

success, since calcium ions (Ca

2þ

), which are not

removed from sweet milk by ultrafiltration (UF),

lead to the development of a bitter flavor in the prod-

uct during storage. For this reason UF-Quark is now

produced by a method similar to Thermoquarg,

mainly from high-temperature-treated milk and not

from a milk concentrate, but the separation of the

curd from the whey is achieved mechanically by con-

centrating the fermented milk by UF with stable

membranes instead of a special separator. The benefit

for the producer is that the dry matter of UF-quarg

contains more lactose and ash in the dry matter com-

pared to Thermoquarg, and thus there is a saving in

expensive protein. As a result of this development, the

law in Germany was revised, and Speisequark must

now contain at least 12% total protein; otherwise, the

product must be named ‘fresh cheese.’

0009 Industrially produced fresh cheeses containing high

amounts of whey proteins are heat-treated at about



C before separating the whey by centrifugation or

ultrafiltration, otherwise it is impossible to obtain a

dry-matter content of 18% and more. Lactic acid

bacteria and their enzymes are inactivated at this

temperature, as are the enzymes produced by psy-

chrotrophs. The shelf-life of unripened cheeses is

nowadays not limited by bacterial contamination,

but rather by a decline in sensory properties, e.g.,

from light-induced off-flavors. (See Lactic Acid Bac-

teria; Pasteurization: Principles.)

0010A special group of products, e.g., double cream

cheeses, is made from quarg containing high levels

of cream. Sometimes, they are stabilized with

hydrocolloids (not allowed in Germany) and pasteur-

ized by heating to 60–80



C for 2–5 min. Hot pack-

aging guarantees a shelf-life of at least 12 weeks.

During the last few years, some rather unique prod-

ucts of this type, containing herbs and spices, have

been produced by techniques and equipment used for

the manufacture of processed cheese. Products with a

very high fat content are made by adding emulsifiers

(e.g., phosphates and citrates). Italy seems to be the

leading country in the development of this type of

product. (See Emulsifiers: Phosphates as Meat Emul-

sion Stabilizers.)

0011Within the last 100 years, the character and com-

position of fresh cheeses have changed completely, at

least where the quarg-type products are concerned.

However, besides the newly developed varieties of

product, the traditional products are still available,

e.g., in shops for alternative food or in Italian spe-

cialty shops, so that the range of fresh cheeses avail-

able to modern-day consumers has expanded greatly

during recent decades. Table 1 shows changes in the

composition of quarg within the last century.

Production

Milk

0012The raw material for most fresh cheeses is (partly)

skimmed milk, but some types are produced from

(homogenized) full-fat milk or even from fat-enriched

tbl0001 Table 1 Mean composition of quarg from skimmed milk in former Federal Republic of Germany within the last century

Product Year Dry matter (%) Lactose (%) Lactic acid (%) Salts (%) Protein (%) Ratio of whey protein

to casein

Milkcontent (kg)

per kg of quarg

Traditional quarg 1871 32–35 2 1.5 1 27 0.02:1 10

Dauerquark 1910 23.3 3.5 0.9 0.9 18 0.04:1 6.7

Quark 1947 21 3.0 1.0 0.7 16.0 0.07:1 5.8

Speisequark 1951 17 3.0 0.8 0.7 12.5 0.04:1 4.8

Thermoquark 1977 17 3.2 1.0 0.8 12.0 0.19:1 3.9

UF-Quark 1985 17 3.7 1.3 1.3 10.7 0.20:1 3.4

Mean values from different sources.

CHEESES/Quarg and Fromage Frais 1105