Caballero B. (ed.) Encyclopaedia of Food Science, Food Technology and Nutrition. Ten-Volume Set

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quality of the flour used for tandoori roti is similar to

that used for chapati. The flour used for puri, how-

ever, has a lower ash content because 10–15% of

coarse branny materials are removed by sieving;

alternatively, whole-wheat flour can be blended with

20–25% of refined wheat flour.

Wheat Flour

0021 Products such as roomali roti, nan, and South Indian

parotha make use of wheat flour obtained by roller

flour-milling of medium-hard wheat. The flour

should have 9.5–10.5% protein and 0.5–0.7% ash.

Composite Flour

0022 Part of the whole-wheat flour can also be replaced

by other (i.e., non-wheat) cereal flours and flours

obtained from legumes or millets, either to improve

the taste and texture, or to improve the nutritional

quality. Among the legume products used in this way,

the most common is bengal gram flour, which is

normally added at the 20–30% level; the chapati so

made is locally known as a mesi roti. Other flours

that are used, or could be used, in chapati making

at levels ranging from 10 to 20% are defatted soya,

groundnut, or cottonseed flours or refined flours

from barley, bajra, sorghum, maize, cassava, and

sweet potato. Triticale, a man-made cereal, was

found to be unsuitable for chapati-making, but it

can be used after blending with wheat flour in a

ratio of 1:1. Soft wheat, which is also not suitable

for chapati-making, can be improved by blending

with hard wheat, or extra-hard durum wheat. (See

Barley; Cassava: Uses as a Raw Material; Sorghum;

Soy(Soya) Beans: The Crop; Vegetables of Tropical

Climates: Root Crops of Uplands.)

Salt

0023Salt is generally dispersed in water and added to the

dough. Hence, edible common salt of any particle size

can be used.

Oil

0024Refined oil is used during dough preparation and

during rolling and lamination of the dough sheet for

the preparation of parotha and South Indian parotha.

Solid fat (hydrogenated oil) can also be used, after it

has been melted to make it easier to use during lamin-

ation. Solid or plastic fat can also be used in the

preparation of the dough.

Egg

0025Egg is used as an optional ingredient in the prepar-

ation of nan. Fresh egg is normally used in the prep-

aration. It is used to improve the color, texture, and

flavor of nan.

Skimmed Milk Powder (SMP)

0026SMP is an optional ingredient used in the preparation

of nan, while milk or SMP is an essential ingredient in

the preparation of roomali roti. It is added to improve

the texture, flavor, and color.

A C

fig0002 Figure 2 Wheat flour-based culinary variations of chapati. (A) South Indian parotha, (B) nan, and (C) roomali roti.

1036 CHAPATIS AND RELATED PRODUCTS

Water

0027 There is no information on the type of water suitable

for chapati-making. Generally, any potable water,

with a medium hardness and a pH value close to

neutrality, is suitable. This is also true for other

variants of chapati.

Influence of Ingredients

Whole-wheat Flour

0028 Since whole-wheat flour is the major ingredient in the

preparation of chapati and other products, its quality

has a considerable influence on the quality of the

end products. Whole-wheat flour obtained from

medium-hard aestivum wheat is preferred, as it yields

a chapati with the desired quality characteristics. The

use of a strong wheat flour, with a protein content of

more than 11.0%, results in a chapati with a tough

and leathery texture, whereas a soft wheat, with less

than 9% protein, yields a chapati with a stiff and

brittle texture. Such chapatis also tend to become

hard and brittle within an hour of storage. A wheat

flour of a similar quality is also well suited for making

tandoori roti, puri, and phulka.

0029The quality of a chapati also depends on the rela-

tive amounts of gliadin, glutenin, and residue protein

present in the flour. A flour with equal amounts of the

above proteins gives fully puffed chapatis with a soft

texture, whereas a flour that has more residue pro-

teins, or gliadin, gives a stiff and leathery chapati. A

flour with a high content of total glutenin has been

found to yield tandoori roti of a highly acceptable

quality. The higher levels of polar lipids in flour result

in chapatis with a soft texture.

0030In addition to the type of wheat, the content of

damaged starch, the diastatic activity, and the sugars

present in the flour affect the quality of a chapati. The

higher the damaged starch content, the higher will be

the water absorption capacity and hence, the softer

the texture of the chapati. A significant direct correl-

ation exists between damaged starch content and

water absorption (r ¼0.89, P < 0.001) and texture of

chapatis (r ¼0.56, P < 0.001). A flour with a high

diastatic activity and sugar content yields a chapati

with a sweetish taste.

0031The characteristics of chapati dough, which are

influenced by the quality of the flour, affect the sens-

ory qualities of the chapati. The sensory texture of a

chapati is related significantly to farinograph consist-

ency (r ¼0.47, P < 0.01), extensograph extensibility

(r ¼0.51, p < 0.01) and resistance to extension

(r ¼0.52, P < 0.01), and textureometer cohesiveness

(r ¼0.57, P < 0.01).

0032Wheat with a low polyphenolase activity is desir-

able to avoid an excessive brownish color in the cha-

pati. These enzymes are found to be low in Indian

wheat varieties, whereas Mexican hybrid wheat var-

ieties, now grown in India, have a high content of this

enzyme. The adverse effect of enzymatic browning is

greater when the chapati dough is rested for a longer

period, or when the baked chapati is stored for a few

hours.

0033Among the different Triticum species, the wheat,

T. aestivum, which yields a nonsticky dough with

good machinability, and a fully puffed chapati with

soft and pliable texture, is most suitable for chapati

preparation. When the species T. durum and T. dicoc-

cum are used for chapati making, dry and hard-

textured products result, which are perceived to be

leathery when chewed. They are also sweeter due

to the higher damaged starch content. In addition to

the type and species of wheat, the severity of grinding

and particle size of the flour play important roles in

influencing the quality of chapatis and other similar

products. Among the different types of mills (plate

mill, hammer mill, pin mill, roller mill, etc.), the flour

obtained from plate mills has been found to be

the best for making chapati, tandoori roti, phulka,

and puri. This is because of the greater severity of

tbl0001 Table 1 Characteristics of resultant atta and whole-wheat flour

Characteristics

(%) Resultant atta Whole-wheat flour

Ash 1.31 1.68

Protein 10.80 10.60

Dry gluten 9.90 9.90

Ether extractives 3.20 2.30

Crude fiber 2.09 2.24

Starch 52.20 54.50

Damaged starch 7.00 14.50

Water-absorption capacity

62.80 73.50

Values are the average of 18 samples and are expressed on a 14%

moisture basis.

Required to prepare chapati dough of optimum consistency.

tbl0002 Table 2 Characteristics of whole-wheat (aestivum) flour

suitable for chapati making

Characteristics Level

Ash (%) 1.2–1.5

Protein (%) 9.0–10.5

Sedimentation value (ml) 25–35

Pelshenke value (min) 120–150

Total sugars (%) 2.5–4.0

Diastatic activity (mg/10 g flour) 250–375

Damaged starch (%) 16–18

Water-absorption capacity (%)

72–78

Required to prepare dough of optimum consistency.

CHAPATIS AND RELATED PRODUCTS 1037

grinding, which results in a flour with a desirable

high damaged starch content, and hence a higher

water absorption, resulting in a soft and pliable

chapati. The soft and pliable characteristics are

retained in products over a long storage period.

The heat developed in such a mill during grinding

tends to yield a chapati with a better flavor. Among

the plate mills, the power- or water-driven mills

are found to be better than hand-driven mills, as

the latter yield flour with a low maltose figure of

1.72–1.99%, and a water-absorption capacity of

just 66–69%, in contrast to the desired higher values

of 2.6–4.65% for maltose content and 72–78% for

water absorption.

0034 A finely ground flour is desirable for chapati and

tandoori roti-making. However, for phulka, the

grinding should be much finer. The coarse flour,

with more than 70–80% overtailing on a 10XX

sieve (130 mm), yields a chapati with a poor appear-

ance and tough texture. The shear force required to

cut such chapatis, which is related to the sensory

texture (r ¼0.67, P < 0.001), is as high as 18–20 kg,

compared with the force of 5–6 kg required for cha-

patis made from normal flour (20–30% overtailing).

The quantity of water required to prepare the chapati

dough of desired consistency is significantly related to

the fraction passing through a 10XX sieve (r ¼0.89,

P < 0.01) and the protein content of the flour

(r ¼0.53, P < 0.05).

0035 The extraction rate of flour has a considerable influ-

ence on the chapati quality. The quality of chapati is

not affected by removing 4–6% of the coarse bran by

sieving (extraction rate 94–96%), as is the practice in

households. However, removing higher amounts of

bran particles by sieving, or using a flour of a lower

extraction rate, makes the chapati tough and leathery.

Hence, to make good chapatis, a considerable amount

of bran needs to be present in flour.

0036 The chapati made from resultant atta is slightly

tough and has a bland flavor; the latter is attributed

to a lower damaged starch content, as well as to the

negligible heat developed during grinding. The tem-

perature reached while grinding in a roller flour mill

can be as low as 30–40



C, as against 90–95



Cina

plate mill. The high temperature reached during the

milling operation seems to favor impartment of a

wheaty aroma in chapatis. This is true for other

products like tandoori roti, parotha, and puri.

0037 If wheat is infected by kernel bunt, at infection

levels above 3%, chapatis will have a dark color and

an undesirable flavor. However, these adverse affects

can be minimized by soaking or washing the infected

grains before grinding. Storing whole-wheat flour for

more than 3 months at a high temperature adversely

affects the quality of chapatis.

Wheat flour

0038Roller-milled flour obtained from medium-hard

wheat is used for the preparation of South Indian

parotha, nan, and roomali roti. The protein content

and the damaged starch in flour are related to

the quality of South Indian parotha. The protein

content of 9.5–10.5% and damaged starch of 10–

12% are desirable (Table 3). The dough used for

roomali roti and South Indian parotha should be

quite extensible, but, at the same time, it should

have sufficient strength. The optimum extensograph

R/E value ranges between 4 and 5 for flours used

in the above products. In nan, the optimum R/E

value is 3–4.

Salt

0039Incorporation of salt in the dough reduces the sticki-

ness and, hence, improves the sheeting characteristics

of chapati dough and other similar products

(doughs). The texture of the products is also

improved considerably.

Oil

0040Incorporation of oil in the chapati dough improves

the texture and pliability. It also keeps the chapati soft

and pliable during storage. Puffing characteristics are

also slightly improved on incorporation of very small

amounts of oil in the dough. Higher levels of fat or

shortening in the dough reduce the puffing quality of

chapatis.

0041Discrete layers in a parotha are due to the applica-

tion of oil during lamination. Oil is also used during

the dough preparation to improve the rolling prop-

erty. Oil is used extensively during stretching and

rolling in the preparation of South Indian parotta,

while it is used in dough as well as stretching in the

preparation of roomali roti. Application of oil during

lamination helps to produce discrete laminations in

South Indian parotha. However, in the case of room-

ali roti, the oil helps to produce a very thin sheet of

dough.

Water

0042The amount of water required to prepare a dough of

optimum consistency for chapati preparation ranges

from 70 to 80%. The amount depends on several

factors, such as the type of wheat, grinding method,

extraction rate, particle size distribution, severity of

grinding, etc. The higher the water requirement, the

softer will be the texture of the chapati and the

sweeter the taste. Such chapatis keep well on storage.

The amount of water required for phulka is higher

and ranges from 75 to 80%. The dough for the prep-

1038 CHAPATIS AND RELATED PRODUCTS

aration of tandoori roti requires slightly higher levels

of water as the dough is made slightly loose to enable

sheeting between two palms. The South Indian par-

otha and roomali roti require less water since they are

made from wheat flour milled in a roller flour mill

with a low damaged starch content; moreover, oil in

dough reduces the water absorption capacity.

Additives

0043 The incorporation of yeast (0.5%) or yogurt (10%)

softens the texture, which is also retained during

storage. Emulsifiers or surfactants, such as glycerol

monostearate, sucrose esters, and sodium stearoyl

lactylate (SSL), and the enzyme, amylase, also im-

prove the texture of a chapati as well as its keeping

quality. The use of glycerol monostearate (GMS) in

nan improves its texture. Incorporation of SSL and

DATEM (diacetyl tartaric acid esters of monoglycer-

ides) improves the softness of South Indian parotha.

Cysteine, HCl at a level of 50 ppm further improves

the machinability of the dough and texture of South

Indian parotha. (See Emulsifiers: Organic Emulsi-

fiers; Enzymes: Uses in Food Processing.)

Methods of Production

0044 Chapatis and their culinary variations are generally

freshly made and served, while still hot, in house-

holds, restaurants, and industrial canteens. Fresh,

hot chapatis are preferred, as they have a better flavor

and soft texture. Consequently, chapatis produced on

a large scale and marketed in unit packs have not

become popular among consumers.

Chapati

0045 The method of preparation of chapatis involves three

important steps, viz. preparation of the dough,

sheeting, and baking-cum-puffing (Figure 3).

0046The main ingredients used in chapatis are whole-

wheat flour, or resultant atta, and water. The water

level varies from 65 to 75%, depending on the type of

wheat and the milling method. In households, and

even in restaurants, the dough is kneaded by hand to

a consistency that is stiffer than bread dough, but

enables easy sheeting without sticking to the base of

the rolling pin. In large industrial canteens, however,

either a planetary vertical mixer with a U-shaped

blade, or a horizontal mixer similar to that used for

bread dough, is used. The dough is mixed for 10–

15 min, for complete development of the gluten,

rested for a period ranging from 30 to 120 min

depending on the convenience. Normally, dough is

rested for proper hydration and for stress relaxation,

which enables easy sheeting with minimal stickiness.

The optimum resting time required is shorter

(15–20 min) for a dough mixed in a mixer but longer

for hand-mixed dough (30–120 min).

0047The dough is divided into 35–40 g pieces and then

rounded between the palms. The rounded dough is

sheeted (using a rolling pin) to a circular shape of

about 15 cm in diameter and 1.5–2.0 mm in thickness.

Dusting with flour is normally done to reduce the

stickiness. The rolled circular dough sheet is then

baked on each side on a heated shallow iron plate

(200–220



C), for a total time of 1–2 min. At the

final stages of baking on the second side, the sur-

face of the chapati is gently pressed with a clean

dry cloth for puffing. Alternatively, puffing can also

be done by placing the chapati immediately after

baking on a gas flame or live, glowing coals for a

few seconds. The hot chapati is served either as such,

or after smearing the surface with fat, preferably ghee

or butter.

0048As yet, little work has been carried out on the

mechanization of chapati production, particularly

with respect to sheeting or baking. However, in some

countries, the equipment generally used for the manu-

facture of tortillas is also used for chapati sheeting

tbl0003 Table 3 Quality characteristics of flour suitable for chapati and its variants

Characteristics Whole-wheat flour Wheat flour

Chapati Phulka Tandooriroti Puri South Indianparotha Nan

Ash (%) 1.2–1.5 1.2–1.5 1.2–1.5 1.0–1.2 0.5–1.0 0.5–1.0

Protein (%) 9.0–10.5 9.0–10.5 9.0–10.5 9.0–10.0 10.0–11.0 8.5–9.5

SV (ml) 25.0–35.0 25.0–35.0 25.0–30.0 20.0–30.0 25.0–35.0 25.0–35.0

PV (min) 120–150 120–150 110– 140 100–120 130–160 125–150

DA (mg/10 g flour) 250–375 375–400 225– 350 200–300 175–250 150–205

Damaged starch (%) 16–18.0 18–20 13–15 12–14 8–10 7–9

Water absorption (%)

72–78 75–80 70–75 65–70 62–65 52–60

Particle size (throughs of 130 mm) 80–90 85–95 75–85 70–80 100 100

Required to prepare dough of optimum consistency.

SV, sedimentation value; PV, Pelshenke value; DA, diastatic activity.

CHAPATIS AND RELATED PRODUCTS 1039

and baking. A few mechanized chapati-sheeting units

have been developed, and are being used in restaur-

ants and industrial canteens. (See Tortillas.)

0049 Sheeting of dough using a rolling pin is time-

consuming and requires experienced persons to

produce chapatis with a circular shape as well as

uniform size and thickness.

Shaping by Pressing

0050 Simple machines are now available to shape chapati

dough. A ‘Hillif’ chapati press with a capacity to

produce 100–200 chapatis per hour is used in some

households and restaurants for sheeting. It consists of

two circular cast iron disks connected by a hinge. The

contacting surfaces are covered with Teflon sheets. A

lever-type handle is attached to the bottom disk.

About 30–40 g of dough are placed at the center of

the bottom disk and covered by the top disk, and

pressure is applied to the top disk for a few seconds

with the help of the lever.

0051 The pressed chapati is removed carefully and

baked. Oil is applied to the surface of the disk to

avoid sticking.

0052 Another mechanical device available for flattening

chapati dough is based on the principle of the can

flanker, and consists of two disks, one fixed, the other

movable. A toggle mechanism is used to press the

dough, which is placed in between the disks, as it

develops a high pressure with little effort. The thick-

ness of the chapati can be varied by adjusting the

clearance between the disks. The bottom plate, on

which 40–50 g of dough have been placed, is made

to press onto the top disk, with the help of a pedal

connected to the toggle. This machine has the cap-

acity to produce 200–300 chapatis per hour. This

device is either hand- or foot-operated.

Shaping by Sheeting

0053All the equipment described above is of the batch

type. Hence, little effort has been made to develop

continuous shaping machines for shaping by sheeting,

which is accomplished by feeding the dough through

a hopper and passing it through four sets of roller to

attain the desired thickness. The sheet then passes

under a rubber-lined drum, and is cut (or stumped)

with a Teflon-coated cutter of 18 cm diameter. The

scrap dough is fed back to the hopper. The machine

has the capacity to produce 1200–1800 chapatis per

hour. Some machines, based on continuous sheeting

and rotary cutting, are now available for the shaping

of chapati dough.

Shaping and Baking

0054A new device, known as a ‘roti maker’, is now on the

market. It can be used for shaping, baking, and

puffing. The device is similar to the ‘Hillif’ chapati

press, but the two disks are heated through the elec-

tric coil attached to the disk. About 30–40 g of dough

are placed at the center of the bottom disk. The

pressure is applied at the top disk for a few seconds

A B C D

fig0003 Figure 3 Method of preparation of chapati. (A) Dough ball, (B) sheeted dough, (C) partially baked chapati, (D) puffed chapati, and

(E) rolling pin.

1040 CHAPATIS AND RELATED PRODUCTS

and allowed to bake. The chapati gets baked and lifts

the top disk while puffing, and the puffed chapati is

removed and served.

Continuous Shaping, Baking, and Puffing Units

0055 A continuous chapati-making machine, designed and

developed by Central Food Technological Research

Institute, Mysore, India, is being fabricated by differ-

ent machine manufacturers, and is now on the market

(Figure 4). The machine has the capacity to produce

600–800 chapatis per hour. The process involves

preparation of the dough in a planetary mixer. The

dough is continuously conveyed to the extruder. A

fish tile die moves the dough sheet to the endless

belt conveyor. The sheet travels on the conveyor and

passes through a rotary cutter and gets uniformly cut

into a circular shape. These chapati sheets enter the

baking chamber, while the remaining/cut portions of

the sheet are trapped and returned to the extruder.

The fuel used for baking is liquid propane gas. The

baking chamber consists of a three-tier endless con-

veyor system. The conveyors are heated by ribbon

burners at the bottom. At the third stage, the chapatis

are exposed to a direct flame to yield a puffed

product, which is collected in a tray.

Phulka

0056 The preparation method, ingredients, and consist-

ency of the dough are similar to those of chapatis.

However, the flour requires higher amounts of water

(75–80%) to form the dough. About 20–25 g dough

are sheeted using a rolling pin to a very thin circular

sheet (0.8–1.0 mm) of about 8–12 cm in diameter.

The dough sheet is baked on each side on a shallow

heated iron plate or hot plate maintained at 200–

220



C for 1–1.5 min and puffed on glowing coal or

a live fire. In view of the lighter weight, puffing of

phulka is complete. Hot phulka is consumed after

smearing with oil, ghee, or butter before serving.

0057 Phulka is also prepared using salt (0.5%) and oil

(4–6%) in the dough. This helps in sheeting the dough

very thinly, and the resulting phulka will have a softer

texture. Phulka, particularly that made with salt and

oil, can remain mold-free for about 5–6 days.

Puri

0058 Puri is a deep-fat-fried product made from a whole-

wheat flour of low extraction rate 85–90%. The

dough made by kneading flour and water is sheeted

to a thickness of 1.5–2 mm and a diameter of

10–12 cm using a rolling pin. The sheeted dough is

deep-fat-fried in oil maintained at 180–200



C for

about 1 min with intermittent turning. The frying is

continued till the puri puffs fully and results in a light

golden brown color. Intermittent pressing of puri

while frying with perforated ladle helps in puffing.

Puri is then removed from the oil bath with a perfor-

ated ladle. It is normally consumed hot, along with

boiled and spiced vegetables.

Parotha

0059The dough made by kneading whole-wheat flour, salt

(1.0–2%), fat (2–5%) and water (65–70%) is divided

into pieces of 35–45 g and sheeted, using a rolling pin,

to a circular shape of 10 cm diameter. Then, oil is

applied to the top surface (1–2 g) and spread uni-

formly. The sheet is folded into a semicircle, and oil

is again uniformly applied over the surface (0.5–

1.0 g); the semicircle is then folded into a quarter

circle. This laminated piece of dough is then sheeted

(by rolling) into the shape of a triangle with a thick-

ness of 2–3 mm, and sides of 15–18 cm in length. The

sheeted dough is baked on an electric hotplate or

heated shallow iron plate, for about 1–2 min until

the color becomes light brown. Oil is applied to

both sides (1–2 g) while baking (Figure 5).

0060No attempt has been made so far to mechanize the

sheeting and lamination processes in parotha-making.

Stuffed Parotha

0061A parotha stuffed with vegetables and spices, so that

it may be eaten as such, without any side dishes, is

known as ‘stuffed parotha’. The dough for stuffed

parothas is made in the same manner as that for

parothas. A filling is prepared by adding chopped

onion (25 g), salt (1 g) and chilli powder (0.5 g) to

fig0004Figure 4 Chapati-making machine.

CHAPATIS AND RELATED PRODUCTS 1041

boiled, peeled, and mashed potato (100 g), and

mixing the ingredients well. A small portion of filling

(about 20 g) is placed on the center of the sheeted

dough (5 cm diameter). The dough is folded over the

filling to make a ball again. The dough is then rolled

into a circular shape (12–15 cm) and baked on a

hotplate by applying oil or butter to both sides.

0062 The ingredients of the filling may be changed,

depending on the availability of vegetables and prefer-

ences of consumers. Stuffed parothas can be prepared

using radish, cauliflower, fenugreek leaves, etc. Some-

times, vegetables are mashed and mixed along with

dough and parothas prepared in the normal manner.

Tandoori Roti

0063 The ingredients used are the same as those used for a

chapati, except that salt (1.25–1.5%) is sometimes

added. The quantity of dough used for a tandoori

roti is higher (40–60 g) than for a chapati (35–40 g).

The dough is flattened by beating and pressing

between the hands to a thickness of 4–6 mm and a

diameter of 15–18 cm. The sheeted dough is baked in

an oval-shaped oven, the walls of which are plastered

with clay (a tandoor, Figure 6). The oven is heated by

burning wood or coal in the bottom. The sheeted

dough is placed on a cloth pad, and pasted to the

heated walls of the tandoor. Depending on the tem-

perature of the tandoor, the roti is baked in 60–90 s.

When the roti has been baked properly, it falls from

the side of the wall to the bottom surface. The baked

roti is then taken out, using a long L-shaped iron rod.

The major heat transfer in a tandoor oven is mainly

by radiation, though some heating also occurs

through conduction and convection.

South Indian Parotha

0064The dough is prepared by mixing wheat flour

(100%), salt (1.0%), sugar (0.5%), egg (0.1%) and

water (55–58%). It is then rested for 30 min, divided

into 75 g portions, rounded and again rested for

10 min. Next, the dough is sheeted with a rolling

pin, and oil is applied while sheeting. The thin

dough sheet thus obtained is folded to form multiple

layers and then coiled (Figure 7). The coiled dough is

rested for 10 min, then sheeted again to a final thick-

ness of 5 mm using a rolling pin. The dough sheet is

then baked at 230–240



C for 2 min on a hotplate, or

on a shallow iron plate heated by gas or coal, and

turned every 15 s. Oil is applied during baking, and

the parotha is served hot and consumed along with

spiced boiled vegetables.

Nan

0065Nan is prepared from refined wheat flour. The

dough is made from wheat flour (100%), milk

(6%), curd (12%), salt (1%), baking soda (0.5%),

fat (4%), and egg (3%). The dough is fermented for

4 h; thereafter, 80 g of dough are sheeted to a thick-

ness of 2.5 mm, using a rolling pin, and baked in a

tandoor oven maintained at 350–365



C for 60 s. Nan

is served hot, and it is normally made in restaurants or

fig0005 Figure 5 Method of preparation of parotha. (A) Dough ball, (B) circular dough sheet, (C) first fold, (D) second fold, (E) sheeted

parotha, (F) baked parotha, and (G) different layers of parotha.

1042 CHAPATIS AND RELATED PRODUCTS

small shops known as ‘Dhabas’, using a tandoor oven

similar to that used for the preparation of tandoor

roti.

Roomali Roti

0066 Roomali roti is prepared using refined wheat flour,

milk powder, fat, salt, and water. The dough made by

mixing these ingredients is rested for about 30 min.

About 100–200 g of the dough are stretched through

fingers to a very thin transparent sheet, to a thickness

of 0.5–0.8 mm and a diameter of 60–90 cm. The

dough sheet is then placed on a heated (350–

360



C), inverted shallow iron plate and baked for

60–90 s. The baked roomali roti is semi-folded, quar-

ter-folded, and served hot.

Handling, Storage, and Distribution

0067 As already mentioned, chapatis and other similar

products are normally consumed fresh and hot. On

storage, they stale, becoming brittle, and hard, and

lose their typical flavor; hence, they are not liked

by consumers. The very short keeping quality of cha-

patis poses serious problems when they have to be

served to a large number of consumers at one time,

as in industrial canteens or in restaurants. A good

chapati would be expected to retain its soft, pliable

texture for at least 2–3 h. No serious mechanization

attempts have been made to enable large-scale prep-

aration and distribution of such products. Persistent

research and development efforts are also being

made in different parts of the world to improve

upon the storage and distribution of chapatis. How-

ever, in some parts of the world, the baked chapati is

now being marketed in unit packs. These chapatis

need to be stored in a refrigerated condition. They

are heated or warmed in a microwave oven before

consumption.

0068The chapati, being a high-moisture product, con-

taining 28–30% moisture, stales like bread or cake,

becoming less acceptable on storage. Compared with

other bakery products, a perceptible staling is ob-

served on cooling. Further storage tends to make

chapatis hard and brittle. In addition to these

changes, mold growth also occurs after 3–4 days of

storage.

0069Sorbic acid is normally used as an antifungal agent

for preserving chapatis/parothas. The maximum level

that could be incorporated without affecting the taste

is 0.1%. The mold growth is delayed by 2–3 days at

this level. However, the use of a higher level of sorbic

acid (0.3%) along with 1.5% salt, and packing in

polythene (200 gauge), or in an aluminum foil/poly-

thene laminate, can delay mold growth for as long as

180 days. Sorbic acid is found to be a better preserva-

tive than its potassium salt. The level of sorbic acid

could be reduced further either by including 0.4%

citric acid, 3% sugar, and 2.5% salt in the recipe, or

by heating the packed chapatis for 2 h at 90



C. The

chapatis made for defense personnel are preserved by

in-pack heat sterilization after being packed in paper/

foil/polylaminate. Such chapatis can be preserved for

180 days. Subjecting packed chapatis/parothas to g

radiation of 1 Mrad also delays the mold growth for

180 days. Parothas can be preserved well for 10

months by using 0.19% sorbic acid and 1.6% salt;

the inner pack, made of MST (moisture-proof seal-

able and transparent) cellophane, is repacked in

paper/foil/polythene pouches. (See Spoilage: Molds

in Spoilage.)

0070A shelf-life of one year can be obtained for prod-

ucts such as chapatis/parothas/stuffed parothas

by packing under a moderate vacuum of about

560 mmHg in sanitary cans, and heating in an oven

at 115–120



C for 1 h.

0071For civilian consumption, polypropylene or poly-

thene metallized polyester laminate pouches are

fig0006 Figure 6 Tandoor oven.

CHAPATIS AND RELATED PRODUCTS 1043

found to be quite adequate. Four chapatis are

packed and sealed in each pouch. The individual

packets are then packed in fiberboard boxes for trans-

portation.

0072 The puri can be stored for a slightly longer period

of 4–5 days, but it becomes hard and brittle within

2–3 days. South Indian parotha remains mold-free

only for 3–4 days. Its life could be extended using

sorbic acid at 0.15% level, but the parotha can

become hard and brittle. The tandoor roti and nan

also can be stored for the same period as a chapati.

No serious efforts have been made to market these

products in unit packs.

See also: Barley; Emulsifiers: Organic Emulsifiers;

Enzymes: Uses in Food Processing; Flour: Roller Milling

Operations; Niacin: Properties and Determination;

Riboflavin: Properties and Determination; Sorghum;

Soy (Soya) Beans: The Crop; Spoilage: Molds in

Spoilage; Starch: Structure, Properties, and

Determination; Thiamin: Properties and Determination;

Tortillas; Vegetables of Tropical Climates: Root Crops

of Uplands; Wheat: The Crop; Cassava: Uses as a Raw

Material