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General Electric Company, Niskayuna
New York, USA
Nuclear Resonance Scattering
Nuclear resonance scattering (NRS) with synchro-
tron radiation combines the outstanding properties of
Mo
¨
ssbauer spectroscopy (see Mo
¨
ssbauer Spectro-
metry) with those of synchrotron radiation. Since its
first observation in 1984 (Gerdau et al. 1985) a rapid
development of the technique and its applications
followed which has just been reviewed (Gerdau and
de Waard 2000). Thanks to the outstanding pro-
perties of third generation synchrotron radiation
sources, NRS has nowadays become an established
spectroscopy on an atomistic scale which is element
and even isotope sensitive and nondestructive. Ap-
plications comprise two main fields, ‘‘hyperfine spec-
troscopy’’ and ‘‘structural dynamics.’’ In hyperfine
spectroscopy NRS is complementary to other nuclear
techniques and yields useful information on atomic,
magnetic, and electric properties and structures.
Those fields of applications benefit most which ex-
ploit the specific properties of synchrotron radiation:
applications to high pressure, to grazing incidence
geometry (surfaces and multilayers), to single crys-
tals, and to very small samples. Structural dynamics
on a ps to ms timescale as free or jump diffusion as
well as rotational motions can directly be measured in
the time domain by nuclear quasi-elastic scattering
techniques. On the fast timescale the (partial) density
of phonon states is directly accessible by nuclear in-
elastic scattering.
1. Principles of Nuclear Resonance Scattering
Nuclear resonance scattering is a resonant x-ray scat-
tering technique in the time domain. It is based on the
Mo
¨
ssbauer effect and the scattering proceeds via the
Mo
¨
ssbauer level whereas Mo
¨
ssbauer spectroscopy is
an absorption spectroscopy and is normally carried
out in the energy domain. Both are, in principle,
connected by the Heisenberg uncertainty principle.
In case of Mo
¨
ssbauer spectroscopy (see Mo
¨
ssbauer
Spectrometry) a radioactive source provides the
g-quanta which are very sharp in energy (neV-meV)
and by varying the energy one measures absorption
spectra behind the sample. In nuclear resonance scat-
tering an x-ray pulse from a synchrotron radiation
source which is very sharp in time (B100 ps) and very
broad in energy (white radiation) excites the nuclear
levels in the sample. The successive decay of these
levels gives rise to an exponential intensity decay in
time. This decay corresponds to the Lorentzian line in
Mo
¨
ssbauer absorption spectroscopy.
There are several techniques utilizing nuclear reso-
nance scattering: nuclear forward scattering (NFS),
nuclear quasi-elastic scattering (NQES), nuclear
Bragg diffraction (NBD), nuclear reflectometry (NR,
for the investigation of surfaces and multilayers), nu-
clear small angle scattering (NSAS, measuring for ex-
ample, magnetic domain structures), nuclear inelastic
scattering (NIS), and synchrotron radiation-based
perturbed angular correlation (SRPAC). In the fol-
lowing a short introduction will be given to the main
fields: nuclear forward scattering, nuclear quasi-elastic
scattering, and nuclear inelastic scattering (see Fig. 1).
1.1 Nuclear Forward Scattering
Nuclear forward scattering (and nuclear reflectome-
try) has the closest analogy to Mo
¨
ssbauer spectro-
scopy; in fact, it is its scattering variant. The main
domain is the determination of hyperfine parameters
such as internal magnetic fields (magnetic hyperfine
field), electric field gradients, isomer shifts, and the
Lamb-Mo
¨
ssbauer factor (f
LM
).
The setup for NFS (see Fig. 1) also looks very
similar to a standard set-up for Mo
¨
ssbauer spectro-
scopy (see Mo
¨
ssbauer Spectrometry). However, while
Mo
¨
ssbauer spectroscopy is an absorption spectro-
scopy (one g-quantum is absorbed by one nucleus)
995
Nuclear Resonance Scattering