Bradbury Jim. The Routledge Companion to Medieval Warfare

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remained mixed.

BATTLES AND SIEGES

ALARCOS, BATTLE OF, 17 JULY 1195

Victory by the Moroccan Almohad caliph Abū Yūsuf over Alfonso VIII of Castile.

The caliph sought to recover Muslim territory. After success against Portugal he targeted

Castile. It was fought near Ciudad Real. Alfonso began a fortress at Alarcos on the

southern frontier of Castile, which the caliph came to destroy. Without waiting for

reinforcements from León, Alfonso charged with some effect but the Muslim reserve

attacked from the left to decide the issue. Alfonso escaped to Toledo. The fortress was

abandoned and the caliph took the name al-Mansūr (the Victorious).

ALGECIRAS, SIEGE OF, 1342–4

Alfonso XI of Castile besieged Algeciras after his victory at Rio Salado in 1340.

Algeciras controlled the northern shore of the Strait of Gibraltar. A Catalan fleet

lockaded from the sea. Muslim defenders used cannons (the first recorded in Iberia),

described as ‘thunder engines’, firing balls the size of apples. A Christian crusade

resulted with aid from England, France and elsewhere. In

The Canterbury Tales

Chaucer’s knight was at the siege. Algeciras surrendered on 26 March 1344. Alfonso

attacked Gibraltar but his demise in the Black Death led to abandonment.

ALJUBARROTA, BATTLE OF, 14 AUGUST 1385

Victory for João of Avis king of Portugal and English allies against Juan I of Castile.

Juan I invaded Portugal with French allies. He besieged Lisbon but his army was hit by

lague. The Portuguese took a defensive position with English longbowmen on the flank,

pits dug before them. Juan’s charge failed. In 1386 England and Portugal made an

alliance that was to endure.

CUARTE, BATTLE OF, OCTOBER 1094

Victory of El Cid over the Almoravids near Valencia. The Cid took Valencia, and

Yūsuf ibn Tāshfīn’s nephew Muhammad came to recover it. The Cid attacked at night

and the defeated Muslims retreated to Jativa. Cuarte and the Cid’s victory at Bairen in

1097 confirmed Christian control of Valencia, albeit only until 1102.

EPPILA, BATTLE OF, 1348

Victory by Pedro IV of Aragón over the Union of Valencian nobles. Pedro faced

rolonged rebellion. After defeat he was trapped in Valencia. The Black Death caused his

opponents to disband. Pedro gained revenge at Eppila with aid from Alfonso XI o

Castile. Many rebels were killed, their banners displayed in Eppila.

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The Union of nobles

broke up while Pedro sought reconciliation.

GRANADA, SIEGE OF, 1491–2

The climactic event of the

Reconquista

when the last Muslim stronghold in Iberia fell

to the Christians. In 1491 the Muslim ruler of Granada refused to pay the tribute.

Ferdinand and Isabella attacked the kingdom of Granada, besieging the city in April

1491. It surrendered on 2 January 1492. Muslims were permitted their own worship.

Boabdil received a small kingdom but left for North Africa. The Alhambra became a

Christian palace.

HUESCA, SIEGES OF, 1094, 1096

Iberia and the Reconquista, 850–1492 231

In 1094 Sancho Ramírez I of Aragón was killed by an arrow when trying to take

Huesca on his southern frontier. His successor Pedro I returned in 1096. Muslims under

al-Mutamin attempted relief. Pedro defeated them and Huesca surrendered, becoming his

chief city.

LAS NAVAS DE TOLOSA, BATTLE OF, 16 JULY 1212

Victory for the Christian kingdoms over the Almohads under al-Nāsir. The Christians

were defeated at Alarcos in 1195. They formed a new alliance under Alfonso VIII o

Castile, Sancho VII of Navarre and Pedro II of Aragón. French allies joined them in a

crusade. Al-Nāsir believed he was safe behind the mountains of the Sierra Morena but the

enemy approached through the pass of Despeñaperros to attack by surprise. The

Christians made a cavalry charge against the mainly infantry enemy. The Muslims held

but attack by the Christian reserve settled the issue. The Muslims broke and fled. Al-

Nāsir escaped to North Africa. Central Iberia was now in Christian hands.

LISBON, SIEGE OF, 1147

Part of the

Reconquista

and the Second Crusade. Iberian Christians under Afonso I o

Portugal besieged Muslim Lisbon from 28 June. They were joined by northern crusaders,

including English, headed for the Holy Land. On arrival the crusaders built a 95 feet high

elfry and siege engines. The Christians mined but the Muslims countermined. The

Christians made a device like a large mousetrap with food inside to trap hungry Muslims.

After 17 weeks the attackers entered on 24 October using a belfry to cross the wall.

Lisbon surrendered to become the capital of Christian Portugal.

LOJA, BATTLE OF, 1 JULY 1482

Defeat of Ferdinand II of Aragón. The Christians besieged Loja in the final stages o

the

Reconquista

. Muslims under the Granadan captain ‘Ali al’Attār, Boabdil’s father-in-

law, ambushed the besiegers under Ferdinand and drove them off. It was a late setback

for the Christians but was soon reversed.

MONTIEL (MOUTIEL), BATTLE OF, 14 MARCH 1369

Defeat of Pedro the Cruel of Castile by his illegitimate half-

rother Enrique de

Trastámara, the climax of the succession war that had drawn Spain into the Hundred

Years’ War, with England supporting Pedro and France aiding Enrique. The site is near

Ciudad Real. Enrique fought a personal combat against Pedro and, with Bertrand du

Guesclin hanging on to Pedro’s leg, stabbed his rival to death. Pedro had generally held

the upper hand but now Enrique ruled.

MURADEL, BATTLE OF, 21 AUGUST 1157

Defeat of Alfonso VII of Castile by the Almohads. He invaded Muslim Iberia but in

the retreat was defeated and killed at Muradel.

NÁJERA (NAVARRETTE), BATTLE OF, 3 APRIL 1367

Victory for Pedro the Cruel of Castile and the Black Prince over Enrique de

Trastámara, Pedro’s rival for the crown. The Black Prince, whose force included John o

Gaunt and Sir John Chandos, avoided an attempt to block his route and crossed the Ebro.

The armies met south of

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the river and Enrique attacked. His cavalry was halted and

routed by English archers. The French finally surrendered, their commander Bertrand du

Guesclin being captured. Pedro was restored to his throne. The result was reversed by the

Black Prince’s illness and withdrawal from Spain.

The routledge companion to medieval warfare 232

OURIQUE, BATTLE OF, 25 JULY 1139

Victory by Afonso Enriques of Portugal over invading Murā

it Muslims. It led to

independence for the kingdom of Portugal. The location is uncertain and may not have

been modern Ourique.

RIO SALADO, BATTLE OF, 30 OCTOBER 1340

Victory of Alfonso XI of Castile and his Christian allies, including his father-in-law

Afonso IV of Portugal, against the Marīnid Sultan Abū’l-Hasan and the ruler of Granada,

Yūsuf I. The Marīnids from Morocco retook Gibraltar and threatened Castile. Iberian and

orth African Muslims besieged Tarifa on the south coast of Spain. The Christians,

seeking to relieve it, met the Muslims near the River Salado. The Christians made a

cavalry charge with some impact but the Muslim line held until the Christian garrison

from Tarifa sortied against the Muslim rear to turn the battle. The sultan returned to

Morocco, while Yūsuf shut himself in Granada. North African intervention was never

again a major threat to the

Reconquista

SEPÚLVEDA, BATTLE OF, 26 OCTOBER 1111

Victory of Alfonso the Battler of Aragón against the supporters of his wife Urraca,

whom he had repudiated. She was the heiress to Castile but Alfonso seized power for

himself. Urraca backed her son, another Alfonso. They failed in the battle but her son

later became Alfonso VII of Castile and León.

SIMANCAS, BATTLE OF, 22 JULY 939

Victory by Ramiro II of León against Muslim invaders. The Caliph of Córdoba, Abd

al-Rāhman, won a series of victories. He assembled troops in Iberia to invade León.

Simancas was besieged and Ramiro came to its relief, the first of several victories.

TOLEDO, SIEGE OF, 1084–5

Captured by Alfonso VI of Castile. Toledo was the capital of a

taifa

state on the Tagus.

It was allied with Castile but Alfonso wanted direct control. He assembled troops from

Aragón, France, Italy and Germany. He deposed his former ally al-Qādir, after two

rebellions against him in Toledo. The Christians appeared before the city in 1084 though

Alfonso did not arrive until March 1085. Toledo offered little resistance and surrendered

on 25 May. The Muslims were allowed their own worship. Al-Qādir went to Valencia

with Alfonso’s support. Alfonso’s kingdom became the largest in Iberia. His success

provoked the Muslims into seeking aid from the Almoravids of Morocco.

TORO, BATTLE OF, 1476

Fought for the succession to Castile on the death of Enrique IV between Ferdinand II

of Aragón and Afonso V of Portugal. Ferdinand married Isabella, Enrique’s sister, and

Afonso married Juana, Enrique’s daughter. It was fought near the Duero. Ferdinand’s

victory was a step towards the unity of Aragón and Castile.

ZALAKA (ZALLĀQA/AZAGAL/SAGRAJAS), BATTLE OF, 23 OCTOBER 1086

Victory near Badajoz of Yūsuf ibn-Tāshfīn over Alfonso VI of Castile. Alfonso VI

advanced the

Reconquista,

capturing Toledo in 1085. The Muslims called for aid from

the Almoravids of Morocco. Yūsuf brought an army in 1086 and the Iberian Muslims

oined him. Alfonso abandoned the siege of Zaragoza. He ordered a charge but it was

held. The Christians were routed but Yūsuf did not press his advantage. Alfonso retreated

to Toledo. The battle marked a halt in the Christian advance. Some authorities date it to

Iberia and the Reconquista, 850–1492 233

1088.

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ZARAGOZA (SARAGOSSA), SIEGE OF, 1118

Captured by Alfonso the Battler of Aragón. It was held by the Murā

it Muslims as the

capital of a

taifa

state. Alfonso led a crusade with Norman and French support. Gaston de

Béarn had been on the First Crusade and built belfries and siege engines. The Muslims

tried to relieve Zaragoza but were repulsed. It was starved into surrender on 19

December, leaving the

taifa

in Christian hands.

The routledge companion to medieval warfare 234

Statue of Bartolomeo Colleoni, Venice, by Verrocchio

The routledge companion to medieval warfare 236

Renaissance Italy, 1250–1525

GENERALS AND LEADERS

See in Part I:

Borgia (Cesare), Cane (Facino), Cangrande della Scala, Charles of Anjou,

Colleoni (Bartolomeo), Conradin, Este (Niccolò d’), Gattamelata (Erasmo da Narni),

Hawkwood (John), Joanna II of Naples, Ladislas of Naples, Ludovico il Moro, Malatesta

(Sigismondo), Manfred, Medici (Cosimo de’), Medici (Lorenzo de’), Sforza (Francesco),

Visconti (Filippo Maria), Visconti (Gian Galeazzo).

BATTLES AND SIEGES

Alessandria 1174–5, Alexandretta 1294, Anghiari 1440, Arbedo 1422, Atella 1496,

Benevento 1266, Brescia 1238, Caravaggio 1448, Carthage 1280, Cascina 1364,

Castagnaro 1387, Cerignola 1503, Chioggia 1378–81, Cortenuova 1237, Curzola 1298,

Eight Saints 1375–8, Ferrara 1482–4, Fornovo 1495, Garigliano 1503, Legnano 1176,

Marignano 1515, Messina 1283, Milan 1158–62, Naples 1284, Novara 1513, Pavia 1525,

Pola 1379, Sapienza 1354, Seminara 1495, Sicilian Vespers 1282, Tagliacozzo 1268,

Trapani 1264.

OUTLINE OF EVENTS

1250 was a dividing line in the history of Italy, the year Frederick II (HRE) died. He had

united the German lands, the parts of northern Italy that came under imperial control, and

the kingdom of Sicily. After his death this unity, never strong, could not be maintained.

The southern kingdom was fought over by his descendants with each other and with

interested outside powers. In the north his death gave new opportunities to imperial

enemies. There were still struggles between supporters of the empire and the papacy

(Guelf/Ghibelline). However, these were now more parties in local politics

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than groups

dominated by outside powers. There were interventions by the emperors but these were

less significant in Italy than previously.

Later medieval Italy is seen as the birthplace of the Renaissance—though there were

revious developments in France. We note in passing that the political pattern of Italy

layed a large part in its cultural development. There was no state of medieval Italy,

which was rather a geographical expression. Italy was a patchwork of small states, more

of them than we can examine. We only note the foremost. Greater powers were always

on the scene, either internally or on the fringes. At the beginning of our period the empire

and the papacy were the greatest political powers concerned, though both declined so far

as Italy was concerned. The power of emperors declined, even in Germany. The papacy

was based outside Italy at Avignon for most of the 14th century though it returned and

regained influence by the 15th century. The Papal States remained a political unit in Italy.

In the north three greater states emerged from many lesser ones, always at odds with each

other, their power and boundaries ebbing and flowing. In each of them there was conflict

etween existence as a republic or under dynastic tyrants. Such states as Padua, Verona,

Bologna and Genoa were important at times but fell under the sway of one of the big

three—Venice, Milan and Florence. Milan and Florence came under dynasties: the

Visconti and the Sforza in Milan, the Medici in Florence. Venice retained its republican

status. These northern states were almost constantly at war with lesser neighbours and

each other, and at times with external powers. The three major powers were wealthy, and

aid troops to defend their interests. In Italy emerged armed bands under captains, the

condottieri

—who made a

condotto

or contract to supply troops to the state concerned. It

was the unique political pattern of Italy that brought about the unusual military system.

There was one further major power in Italy, in the south, the kingdom of Naples, the

successor state to the Norman kingdom of Sicily. It became the target of external

interests, falling in turn under the empire and princes from France (Anjou) and Aragón.

Through much of the later Middle Ages the area was separated in two, the mainland as

the kingdom of Naples, and the island of Sicily, sometimes called the kingdom o

Trinacria.

Because of its political pattern the chief military events of Italy are best examined

through the separate states—Venice, Milan, Florence, the Papal States and the kingdom

of Naples. By the mid-15th century and the Peace of Lodi the boundaries of these states

had more or less stabilised, only altered by intervention from European powers, in

particular the invasion of Charles VIII of France—which takes us into the early modern

period.

Venice was the only surviving republic among the greater states, a land and sea power

with interests around the Mediterranean and in the Middle East. Venice played a part in

the fall of Constantinople to the Fourth Crusade and depended on trade to the east,

retaining links with Byzantium. Venice was wealthy and, it was said, housed 14,000

harlots. It swallowed up neighbouring smaller states including Padua, Vicenza and

Verona. It had a complex constitution producing a great council and a doge (or duke),

elected for life.

Milan became the dominant power in Lombardy, a leading industrial region in the

medieval world. It suffered more than the rest of Italy from imperial interventions and

benefited as these declined. It led the Lombard League against the emperors. From the

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13th century Milan was dominated by dynasties—the Torre, the Visconti and the Sforza.

The greatest of the Visconti, Gian Galeazzo, was named Duke of Milan by Wenceslas

king of the Romans, and the title was retained. Gian Galeazzo took over Pisa, Siena,

Perugia and Bologna. Milan’s expansion provoked reaction from Venice and Florence.

The greatest of the Sforza was Francesco, who married Filippo Maria Visconti’s only

daughter, the illegitimate Bianca Maria. Milan’s independence was lost after the period o

invasions, first to France and then to Spain.

Florence is renowned as the prime base of the Renaissance. It had strong republican

traditions but fell under the partly disguised power of dynasties. On the death o

Frederick II, Florence accepted popular government under priori (ruling magistrates). It

could not sustain its position without surrendering to first the Albizzi and then the

Medici, who replaced the Albizzi with popular support. They played down their real

The routledge companion to medieval warfare 238

power—not unlike the way the earliest ancient Roman emperors had to pretend to be first

among equals. Cosimo established the new regime and repulsed the threat from Milan.

His grandson Lorenzo the Magnificent fended off an assassination attempt, the Pazzi

Conspiracy. His success depended more on diplomacy than on war. In the 16th century

Florence lost its independence, but a brief return to republicanism was ended with the

appointment of Alessandro (son of the Duke of Urbino) as Duke of Florence in 1531.

The Papal States had little unity, despite their prestige in Christendom. The Avignon

residence in the 14th century weakened papal power in Italy. Towns within the States

were subject to attempts at control from other Italian powers. They also sought

independence of the papacy, which itself fell into the hands of the Italian families, whose

members were elected popes—including the Borgias and the Medici. Alum from Tolfa

helped finance defence of the States.

The kingdom of Sicily or Naples was the only Italian monarchy, the largest of the

states of Italy, but the most backward economically by the late Middle Ages. It suffered

on the death of Frederick II with succession wars, involving his legitimate and

illegitimate descendants based in the south and in Germany, and claimants to the

kingdom from England, France and Aragón. His Staufen descendants lost the struggle.

Charles of Anjou, brother of St Louis, conquered the kingdom. In 1282 the rebellion o

the Sicilian Vespers led to loss of the island of Sicily to Aragón. The kingdom remained

divided until the mid-15th century. Naples fell victim to foreign invasion—conquered by

Charles VIII of France, reverting to Aragón in 1496, to Louis XII of France in 1500 and

finally to Spain in the 16th century.

BATTLES AND SIEGES

ALESSANDRIA (ALEXANDRIA), SIEGE OF, 1174–5

Frederick Barbarossa besieged Alessandria from 29 October during his fifth Italian

expedition. It was founded on the Po by the Lombard League against Frederick, and

named after Pope Alexander III who was hostile to Frederick. The town resisted. On

Good Friday, Frederick broke the Truce of God by mining the wall. His men entered but

were defeated inside. He abandoned the siege on 13 April, Easter Sunday, burning his

camp and siege equipment. Three days later he made terms with the Lombard League.

There was a Battle of Alessandria in 1391, when Milan defeated Florence.

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ALEXANDRETTA, NAVAL BATTLE OF, 1294

Victory off the coast of Cilicia near Alexandretta (held by Venice) for Genoa against

Venice in the war between them. Venice soon recovered.

ANGHIARI, BATTLE OF, 29 JUNE 1440

Victory of an alliance between the papacy and Florence against Milan at the ancient

walled town of Anghiari near Arezzo, a largely cavalry engagement. The Milanese army

was led by the

condottiere

Piccinino, the allies by Francesco Sforza. According to

Machiavelli it was an example of the kind of battle fought between mercenaries who

would not kill each other—‘one man was killed and he fell off a horse’; in fact probably

about 300 died. Over half the Milanese force was captured as well as all the baggage. The

Medici position in Florence was strengthened. Leonardo painted a fresco of it in the

Palazzo Vecchio Florence (now only known from a copy by Rubens). There is also a

Renaissance Italy, 1250–1525 239

painting from the school of Uccello.

ARBEDO, BATTLE OF, 30 JUNE 1422

Milanese victory over Swiss invaders near Bellinzona, now in Switzerland. The

Milanese were led by the

condottiere

Count Carmagnola for Filippo Maria Visconti. The

Swiss came through the St Bernard Pass to besiege Bellinzona, held by Milan. They

abandoned the siege to face the Milanese relieving army. After an abortive mounted

charge, Carmagnola dismounted his cavalry and attacked on foot. Milan now held the Val

d’Ossola. Until Arbedo the Swiss posed a threat to Milan and Venice. The Swiss used

halberds and their defeat encouraged the future use of pikes.

ATELLA, BATTLE OF, 1496

Success of the Spanish in Italy under Hernández Gonzalo de Córdoba against the

French under Gilbert duc de Montpensier. Charles VIII of France invaded Italy from

1494. A Spanish force came to aid the King of Naples. The Spanish gained revenge for

Seminara. They besieged the French in Atella, outside which the battle was fought.

Montpensier was captured.

BENEVENTO, BATTLE OF, 26 FEBRUARY 1266

Victory for Charles of Anjou in the kingdom of Naples near the road for Apulia.

Charles invaded Italy and was crowned King of Sicily in Rome. He was opposed by

Manfred, illegitimate son of Frederick II. Manfred claimed to be king but had been

excommunicated by the pope. Charles took a defensive position on the bank of the River

Calor, over which Manfred attacked. Charles’ cavalry broke the enemy archers and

surrounded their German cavalry. Manfred renewed his attack but was killed. It was the

end of Norman and imperial rule in southern Italy.

BRESCIA, SIEGE OF, 1238

Besieged by Frederick II from 3 August to 9 October. He wanted to take Brescia, east

of Milan, before attacking Milan itself. He brought siege engines and the Spanish mining

expert Calamandrino, who was captured and offered gifts (a house and a woman) to

change sides. He then showed the Brescians how to make catapults against Frederick’s

elfries. The besiegers tied captives to the front of their engines to discourage attack. The

Brescians lowered their captives on ropes before the walls where Frederick’s rams were

aimed. A nocturnal sortie took Frederick by surprise. With winter Frederick retreated to

Cremona.

CARAVAGGIO, BATTLE OF, 15 SEPTEMBER, 1448

Victory of Francesco Sforza for Milan over Venice. Sforza was attacked by surprise at

dawn on the road from Brescia to Milan. Sforza held the attack and sent men through the

woods to attack from the rear. This surprise was effective and the Venetians were beaten.

Sforza made terms to gain Venetian support in his bid for power in Milan.

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CARTHAGE, BATTLE OF, 1280

Victory of Charles of Anjou king of Sicily over the Moors in Tunisia. He made a

feigned flight and turned on the pursuing enemy.

CASCINA, BATTLE OF, 28 JULY 1364

Victory of Florence over Pisa. The Pisans were not expecting attack and some were

athing in the Arno. Michelangelo painted an unfinished fresco of Cascina in the Palazzo

Vecchio in Florence, of which a copy survives. Hawkwood won a victory here in 1369

The routledge companion to medieval warfare 240