Bradbury Jim. The Routledge Companion to Medieval Warfare
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earldom because he was young. He was created earl of a group of east midland shires in
1065. He did not oppose the Norman Conquest and kept his earldom. When William
returned to Normandy in 1067, Waltheof went with him as a hostage. In 1069 he joined
the northern rebellion. He made his peace with William, whose niece Judith he married in
1070. In 1072 he became Earl of Bamburgh. He was accused of involvement in the
rebellion of 1075,
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though possibly innocent. The rebels were defeated and Waltheo
f
imprisoned at Winchester. A year later, on 31 May, he was executed, permitted to say the
Lord’s Prayer but breaking down in tears before completing it. The executioner would
not wait and cut off his head with a sword, when it was said the severed head completed
the final words. The body was reburied at Crowland in 1092. Legends grew, miracles
were reported, and the site became a cult centre.
WARBECK, PERKIN (1474–99)
Nominal leader of a rebellion against Henry VII in 1497, probably born in Flanders
and taken up by exiled Yorkists. He claimed to be Edward earl of Warwick, Edward IV’s
nephew. Henry VII brought Warwick from the Tower and displayed him in public. A
Breton merchant took Perkin to Ireland in 1491 where he impersonated Richard duke o
f
York, the younger of the Princes in the Tower. Perkin was taken around Europe seeking
aid against Henry. He married Katherine Gordon, a cousin of James IV of Scots. He
received promises but little aid. Twice invasions were attempted but failed. On the third
try in 1497 he landed in Cornwall but support evaporated. Perkin was captured when
taking refuge in Beaulieu Abbey. At first he was treated leniently but then tried for
treason and hanged at Tyburn on 29 November.
WARWICK, RICHARD NEVILLE, EARL OF (THE KINGMAKER) (1428–71)
Son of Richard Neville earl of Salisbury. The nickname ‘Kingmaker’ was given in the
16th century. He gained the earldom in 1449 through marriage to the heiress Anne
Beauchamp. With his father he joined the Yorkists, opposing Henry VI and the Percies.
He fought at the First Battle of St Albans in 1455, leading the attack that surprised the
Lancastrian rear. He was appointed Captain of Calais and gained a naval reputation. He
fled when York failed in 1459 but assisted Edward IV to become king, regaining his
earldom. Warwick captured Henry VI at Northampton in 1460. Warwick was wounded in
the leg by an arrow at Ferrybridge but fought in the victory at Towton in 1461. His
earldom was restored. He was defeated by Queen Margaret at the Second Battle of St
Albans in 1461. With Edward’s success Warwick became powerful in the north but felt
inadequately rewarded. He opposed Edward’s marriage to Elizabeth Woodville. He allied
with Clarence who married his daughter. Warwick rebelled, joining the Lancastrians in
exile. His daughter Anne married Henry VI’s son. Warwick invaded with the
Lancastrians in 1470 when Henry VI was restored. Edward returned the following year.
Warwick was defeated and killed on 14 April at Barnet.
WENCESLAS II (WENZEL), KING OF BOHEMIA AND POLAND (1271–1305)
King of Bohemia from 1278, of Poland from 1300, son of Ottokar II. He established
Bohemia as a major central European power. He took the crown of Hungary for his son
1301–4. His father was killed in battle and Wenceslas faced civil war in Bohemia. The
three kingdoms separated again through the efforts of Albert of Austria. Wenceslas died
on 21 June. His son Wenceslas III succeeded.
Generals and leaders, A–Z 101
WENCESLAS IV (WENZEL), KING OF BOHEMIA AND OF THE ROMANS
(1361–1419)
King of Bohemia from 1378, King of the Romans as Wenceslas I from 1376. He was
of the House of Luxembourg, son of Charles IV who died in 1378. Wenceslas was
reputed a drunkard. He was twice defeated by Bohemian coalitions, but each time
recovered. He fought a civil war in Germany with Rupert of Wittelsbach and was
deposed in Germany in 1400. He was rivalled by his brother Sigismund, elected King o
f
the Romans 1410 and allowed to hold the position by Wenceslas from 1411. Wenceslas
sold the duchy of Milan to Giangaleazzo Visconti for 100,000 florins. Radical Hussites
were provoked into
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attacking the Town Hall in Prague, throwing councillors out of the
window. It was said Wenceslas died of shock on 16 August on hearing the news,
suffering a stroke and roaring like a lion. He was buried in Prague.
WIDUKIND
Saxon military leader, Charlemagne’s toughest opponent. His family was probably
Westphalian nobility, possibly ducal. He allied with the Danes, related by marriage to the
Danish royal family. From 777 he raided Frankish territory with attacks on monasteries
and churches. In 778 he raided along the right bank of the Rhine from Deutz to Koblenz,
attacking Charles’ forces at Hesse. Widukind made attacks whenever Charlemagne was
elsewhere. The frequency of Charles’ expeditions against the Saxons is testimony to
Widukind’s threat. In 782 on the Weser he defeated a Frankish army led by three o
f
Charles’ officials. After Charlemagne’s revenge in the massacre at Verden, Widukind
escaped—it was said by reversing the shoes on his horse to mislead pursuers. He took
refuge with the Danes. Charles won further victories but Widukind remained at large. He
finally made an agreement with Charles in 785, agreeing to baptism at Attigny. He
retained his lands but no more is heard of him, though he lived on in Saxon legend.
WILLIAM I, THE CONQUEROR, KING OF ENGLAND, WILLIAM II DUKE
OF NORMANDY (c.1027–87)
Duke from 1035, King from 1066, known as the Bastard and the Conqueror, born in
Falaise, the illegitimate son of Robert I duke of Normandy and Herlève—daughter o
f
either a tanner or an undertaker. William succeeded as a minor and faced opposition.
Some Norman nobles and the King of France protected his position. William’s first major
victory was against rebels at Val-ès-Dunes in 1047. In 1051–2 he captured Domfront and
Alençon. The King of France became hostile but was defeated at St-Aubin-sur-Scie 1053.
William captured Arques. Normandy was invaded in 1054 and 1057, but William won at
Mortemer and Varaville. The deaths of Henry I of France and Geoffrey Martel of Anjou
in 1060 left William freer. He took over Maine in 1063 and campaigned in Brittany in
1064. When Edward the Confessor died and Harold II took the throne, William accused
him of treachery and invaded England, landing at Pevensey. Harold was defeated and
killed at Hastings. By the end of 1066 he controlled the south-east of England, crowned
in London on Christmas Day. Numerous castles were built in England, including stone
ones at Colchester and London. He suppressed a series of rebellions, taking Exeter in
1068. Rebellion in 1069 led to the harrying of the North. Rebellion in East Anglia in
1071 was suppressed though Hereward escaped punishment. There was rebellion by the
earls in 1075, leading to the execution of Waltheof. William defeated invasions from the
The routledge companion to medieval warfare 102
sons of Harold Godwinson, and Scandinavia in 1069. William imprisoned his own half-
b
rother, Odo of Bayeux, in 1083 for plotting against him. In 1072 William invaded
Scotland, when Malcolm Canmore submitted. William married Matilda of Flanders, by
whom he had nine children. He quarrelled with his oldest son Robert Curthose who
rebelled. Robert defeated and unhorsed his father at Gerberoi 1079. The Conqueror
injured himself on the pommel of his saddle when attacking Mantes. He was taken to
Rouen where he died on 9 September. His body would not fit the stone sarcophagus and
burst when forced in. He was buried at his foundation of St-Étienne, Caen. His sons
Robert Curthose (Normandy) and William Rufus (England) succeeded.
WILLIAM I, THE LION, EARL OF NORTHUMBERLAND, KING OF SCOTS
(1143–1214)
Son and successor of Henry earl of Northumberland from 1152, king from 1165 in
succession to his brother
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Malcolm IV. He invaded England in alliance with Henry II’s
sons in 1173. He experimented with military weapons, though with little success. When
he threw fire from an engine at Wark in 1174, the wind blew the flames back in the
Scots’ faces. When he used an early trebuchet the stone tumbled from the sling and killed
one of his men. He was captured at Alnwick. By the Treaty of Falaise in 1174 he
recognised the overlordship of the King of England. He married Ermengarde de
Beaumont in 1186. He repressed rebellions in Scotland, extending royal power north o
f
the Moray Firth. He died on 4 December at Stirling and was buried in Arbroath Abbey.
His son Alexander II succeeded.
WILLIAM I, LONGSWORD, DUKE OF NORMANDY (c.924–942)
Duke of Normandy from 927 (more properly Count of Rouen), son of Rollo the
founder of Normandy and Poppa. He extended Normandy’s boundary. By 933 he gained
western Normandy to the Couesnon from the Bretons, adding the Cotentin and
Avranchin—recognised by Ralph, King of the West Franks in 933. William claimed to be
Duke of Brittany. In 933–4 the Scandinavian Rioul rebelled and was defeated. William
married Liégarde, the Christian daughter of the Count of Vermandois. He was murdered
on 17 December on the Somme island of Picquigny, through the treachery of the Count
of Flanders. This led to a pagan revival. His illegitimate son Richard I succeeded.
WILLIAM II, RUFUS, KING OF ENGLAND (c.1058–1100)
Son and successor of William the Conqueror in 1087. His nickname means ‘the Red’
either from his complexion or his hair. He was also called Longsword. William fought for
his father against Curthose at Gerberoi in 1079 and was wounded. On the Conqueror’s
death, Curthose became Duke of Normandy and felt England should be his. There were
rebellions in England in 1088 and 1095, which were suppressed. Rufus sought to win
N
ormandy in 1094 but failed. In 1096 Curthose raised money from Rufus to finance his
p
articipation in the First Crusade. Rufus was left in control of Normandy, recovering
Maine in 1098. Rufus was killed on 2 August by an arrow when hunting in the New
Forest. His brother Henry, who succeeded him, was suspected but without conclusive
evidence. The body was taken to Winchester for burial. Rufus had not married and had
no children to succeed him.
WILLIAM V, THE GREAT, DUKE OF AQUITAINE, COUNT OF POITOU
(d.1029)
Generals and leaders, A–Z 103
Son and successor of William IV, duke from 990, virtually an independent ruler from
his capital at Poitiers, treating as equals kings of France, Holy Roman Emperors and
rulers of Spain and Italy. His second marriage, to Prisca daughter of the Duke o
f
Gascony, united Gascony with Aquitaine. His first wife was Adelmode of Périgueux, his
third, Agnès of Burgundy. He accepted the crown of Italy for his son but gave it up. He
imposed the Peace of God on lords engaging in private war. He sought to limit the power
of his vassals by control of castles, leading to conflict with Boso II count of La Marche.
William VI, and four sons in turn, succeeded.
WILLIAM IX, THE YOUNG, DUKE OF AQUITAINE AND GASCONY, COUNT
OF POITOU (d.1126)
Duke of Aquitaine from 1086 as a minor, son of William VIII, a patron of troubadours
and a poet. He married Philippa of Toulouse in 1094. He went on Crusade in 1101–2
when he was defeated at Heraclea in Asia Minor, though escaping to Jerusalem.
Castellans of Poitou sought independence of Aquitaine, building castles. He fought his
vassals the Lords of Parthenay and Lusignan, and his neighbour Fulk IV of Anjou. He
became Lord of Toulouse through marriage, but only until 1119. In
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1120 he was
defeated in Gascony. He invaded Spain, reaching Granada in 1125. His son William X
succeeded.
WILLIAM CLITO, COUNT OF FLANDERS (1102–28)
Son of Robert Curthose and Sybil of Conversano. Clito equates to ‘Aetheling’ or
Prince. He was ‘dogged by misfortune from his earliest years’. His mother was probably
p
oisoned. He resented the conduct of his uncle, Henry I, who defeated and imprisoned his
father and then seized Normandy—which Clito saw as his inheritance. He was protected
in exile by the King of France and participated in rebellions and invasions of Normandy
against Henry. He accompanied Louis VI on the 1118 campaign leading to Brémule
when the French were defeated but Clito escaped. The 1124 Norman rebels supported
Clito but were defeated at Bourgthéroulde. The marriage of Henry’s daughter, Matilda, to
Geoffrey of Anjou was intended to block an alliance between Clito and Anjou. Clito
married the half-sister of Queen Adela of France in 1127. Louis VI gave him lands
including the Vexin. After the murder of Charles the Good in 1127 Louis made William
Count of Flanders, reclaiming the Vexin. Clito lived another 16 months. He hunted down
the murderers of Charles but his hold on Flanders was uncertain. He alienated some by
p
unishing the murder suspects, Bruges by the removal of privileges, other cities by
ignoring their liberties. At the siege of Aalst in Flanders Clito, after fighting bravely,
wounded himself grasping a lance. The arm turned black to the elbow (probably
gangrene). Five days later on 27 July, after becoming a monk, he died. He was buried in
the abbey of St-Bertin at St-Omer. His epitaph described him as ‘an honoured knight’.
WILLIAM DE CHAMPLITTE, PRINCE OF ACHAEA (d.1209)
Ruler of the principality of Achaea or the Morea, established after the Latin capture o
f
Constantinople. William was of French nobility. He and Geoffrey de Villehardouin
captured the territory, consisting of most of the Peloponnese, in 1204–5. The capital was
at Andravida, the principality divided in 12 baronies. Among its new castles was Mistra
near Sparta. Women could inherit and rule, and Achaea had six female rulers. The
p
rincipality passed to the Villehardouin family, surviving until 1341 when it surrendered
The routledge companion to medieval warfare 104
to Byzantium. It passed to Thomas Palaeologus in 1432. The despotate of Morea fell to
the Turks in 1460.
WILLIAM DE HAUTEVILLE, BRAS DE FER (IRONARM), COUNT OF
APULIA (d.1045)
Eldest son of Tancred de Hauteville, the first to go to Italy in c. 1035. He was
employed by the Lombard Pandulf of Capua and then by the Byzantines. He unhorsed
and killed the Muslim Emir of Syracuse in single combat at Troina, earning the nickname
‘Ironarm’. On the mainland he assisted Lombard victories in 1041, commanding at
Monte Maggiore on 4 May, despite a fever. At Melfi in 1042 he took the title Count o
f
Apulia. He married Guida, daughter of the Lombard Duke of Sorrento. His brother Drogo
succeeded.
WILLIAM FITZ OSBERN, EARL OF HEREFORD (d.1071)
Steward of Normandy, Viceregent in England for William the Conqueror, called ‘the
bravest of the Normans’, related to the ducal family. His father Osbern was William’s
steward, murdered in his service. His territorial base was in central Normandy. He was a
significant supporter of William before 1066, one of the few named in contemporary
sources as fighting at Hastings. He received the Isle of Wight and the county of Hereford
in 1067. After the northern rebellion Fitz Osbern was castellan at York. Philip I of France
summoned him to represent the Conqueror against Flanders. He took only ten men and
was killed on 20 (or 22) February at Cassel. His body was returned to Normandy for
burial at Cormeilles.
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WILLIAM OF HOLLAND, GERMAN ANTI-KING (1227–56)
Count of Holland, opponent of Frederick II in Germany, supported by Pope Innocent
IV, the son of Count Florence IV. He married the daughter of the Duke of Brunswick. He
was elected anti-king against Frederick to replace Henry Raspe in 1247 and re-elected in
1252. He fought a civil war against Frederick and his son Conrad IV until the latter’s
death in 1254. William died on 28 January, fighting the Frisians, when his horse sank into
a frozen marsh.
WILLIAM OF YPRES (d.1162)
The military lieutenant of King Stephen. He was not created earl but held the position
in Kent. The illegitimate son of Philip of Ypres, grandson of Robert the Frisian count o
f
Flanders, he twice sought to become Count of Flanders but failed. He was captured and
imprisoned, then exiled in 1133. He became a mercenary captain for Stephen count o
f
Boulogne. His birth and military ability earned him a senior position. For Stephen as king
William defended Normandy. In the civil war against Matilda he captured Devizes Castle
in 1139. He led the left wing for Stephen at Lincoln and escaped. With Stephen captured
William acted for him with Stephen’s wife, Queen Matilda. They forced the Empress
Matilda to flee from London and defeated her troops at Winchester, leading to Stephen’s
release. William became blind, playing no part in the war against Henry Plantagenet but
was one of the few to suffer under Henry II. His lands in England were confiscated and
he retired to his castle of Loo in Flanders to spend his last years.
WILLIAM THE MARSHAL, EARL OF PEMBROKE, REGENT OF ENGLAND
(1147–1219)
Regent from 1217 to 1219 for Henry III, son of the royal Marshal, John fitz Gilbert, a
Generals and leaders, A–Z 105
famous knight and subject of the
Histoire de Guillaume le Maréchal
. He rose through
success in tournaments, accumulating wealth (the medieval equivalent of a football star).
He fought in the 1173–4 rebellion, first for Young Henry and then for the king. He
unhorsed Richard the Lionheart in 1189 but Richard permitted his marriage to the heiress
of Richard de Clare (Strongbow) that brought his earldom. He helped defeat Prince
Louis’ invasion, defeating the French at Lincoln in 1217. He died on 14 May possibly o
f
cancer of the bowel. His English lands went to his son William. He was buried in the
Temple in London, which retains his effigy.
YAGHI-SIYAN, EMIR OF ANTIOCH (d.1098)
Made Seljuk Emir of Antioch in 1087 by Sultan Malik Shah and thus emir at the time
of the First Crusade. The Seljuks were conquerors in the region and not popular with a
population of mainly Greek, Syrian and Armenian Christians. Yaghi-Siyan defended
Antioch, when besieged by the crusaders, improving the fortifications. When the
crusaders were treacherously let in on 3 June, Yaghi-Siyan escaped on horseback but fell
fainting from his horse to be decapitated by an Armenian shepherd, who presented the
head to the Franks.
YORK, RICHARD PLANTAGENET, DUKE OF (1411–60)
Son of Richard earl of Cambridge who opposed Henry VI to initiate the Wars of the
Roses. He succeeded his uncle as duke in 1415. He married Cecily Neville, sister o
f
Richard earl of Salisbury. He was knighted by Henry VI in 1426. York became Governor
in France in 1436, and also in Normandy from 1440. He captured Pontoise in 1437. In
1447 he reluctantly became Lieutenant in Ireland. In 1450 he tried to control the royal
Council but failed. In 1452 he took arms against the king but submitted without fighting.
When Henry lost his mind in 1454 York became Captain of Calais and Protector o
f
England. Henry’s recovery ended the Protectorate. York took
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to arms in 1455, defeating
the royalists at St Albans, where Henry was captured. The Protectorate was revived but
Henry recovered and dismissed York. In 1459, lacking support, York fled to Ireland and
was attainted as a traitor. After Warwick’s success at Northampton, York prepared to
assume the crown but was defeated and killed on 30 December at Wakefield. His sons
became Edward IV and Richard III.
YŪSUF I, ABŪ YA’QŪB, ALMOHAD CALIPH (d.1184)
Caliph in Spain and North Africa from 1163, son and successor of ‘Abd al-Mu’min.
He recovered the Muslim position in Spain, taking Córdoba in 1164. In 1179 he attacked
Lisbon but failed to take it. He attacked Portugal in 1184 but died from a wound. His son
Abū-Yūsuf succeeded.
YŪSUF IBN-TĀSHFĪN, EMPEROR OF MOROCCO (1030–1106)
Emperor from 1061, founder of the Almoravid Empire. In 1068 he founded Marakesh
as his capital. He invaded Spain in 1086 on appeal from the
taifa
ruler of Seville. He
defeated Alfonso VI of Castile at Zalaka. In 1090 he took Granada and Málaga, in 1091
Córdoba and Seville, establishing a Spanish sector to his empire. Of the
taifas
only
Zaragoza with aid from El Cid resisted successfully, while the Cid took Valencia which
Yūsuf recovered after the Cid’s death. Yūsuf died on 2 September and his son ‘Alī
succeeded.
ZANGI (ZENGI), IMAD AL-DIN, ATABEG OF MOSUL (1100–46)
The routledge companion to medieval warfare 106
Atabeg from 1127, under Alp Arslan, said to be the son of the captive Frankish Ida o
f
Austria. His father was Aqsonqor emir of Aleppo. Zangi won control of much of northern
Syria. In 1137 he besieged and took Montferrand from the Franks, in 1138 Homs. He
failed to take Muslim Damascus in 1130, 1135 and 1139. He declared Holy War against
the Franks, taking Edessa in 1144 and massacring the garrison—the kingdom o
f
Jerusalem’s first major loss. The Caliph made Zangi King of Mosul in place of Alp
Arslan. On campaign against Damascus he was murdered on 14 September by a Frankish
eunuch he had rebuked for drinking wine. His son, Sayf ad-Din, succeeded in Mosul
while another son, Nur ed-Din, held Aleppo. The dynasty survived until 1262.
ZENO THE ISAURIAN (TARASICODISSA), EASTERN EMPEROR (d.491)
Emperor from 474. He was employed by Leo I as a commander of Isaurian troops from
Anatolia. He led the Excubitors, the imperial guard, the Army of Thrace, and later the
Army of the east. He changed his name from Tarasicodissa Rousoumbladeotes to Zeno
and married Leo’s daughter Ariadne. Leo had no sons and, with Zeno, killed rivals for the
throne, including Aspar. Zeno was co-emperor with his own son Leo II (grandson of Leo
I)—aged seven and shortly to die. Zeno made peace with Gaiseric the Vandal. He fought
off three coups. The Western Empire ended but Zeno maintained the Eastern Empire,
p
ersuading Theoderic and the Ostrogoths to move on and invade Italy. Zeno died in an
epileptic fit on 9 April and was buried in Constantinople. A later tale had him buried
alive, his calls from the tomb ignored.
ZOE CARBONOPSINA (BLACKEYES), BYZANTINE EMPRESS
Mistress of Leo VI, whom he married when she became pregnant. Her uncle was the
Admiral Himerius. It was a fourth marriage for Leo, not normally allowed in Byzantium.
Leo died in 912 and his brother Alexander banished Zoe, Alexander died in 913 and Zoe
returned to replace Nicholas as regent for her son Constantine VII. She stopped the
marriage between Constantine and the Bulgar Symeon’s daughter, leading to an invasion
of Byzantine territory. Zoe allied with the Pechenegs, encouraging them to attack the
Bulgars but they were defeated at Anchialus in 917. The Byzantines defeated the
invading Saracens
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near Tarsus and in Italy near Capua. In 920 Romanus Lecapenus put
Zoe in a convent, where she was known as Sister Anna, and his daughter married
Constantine.
ZOE PORPHYROGENITA, BYZANTINE EMPRESS (979–1050)
Empress from 1028, daughter of Constantine VIII. Constantine forced Romanus
Argyrus to marry her before his death in 1028, when she was 50 and Romanus 61. She
took Michael the Paphlagonian as a lover. Romanus III died in 1034, possibly killed by
Zoe. Next day she married Michael, who became Michael IV but died in 1041. Zoe’s
adopted son became Michael V. In 1042 he forced her into a convent but popular protest
led to the release of Zoe and her sister Theodora, enclosed in a convent for 15 years.
They reigned together for three months. In 1042 Zoe married, her husband becoming
Constantine IX. She was the more popular, and there was a revolt against him in 1044.
Under Romanus III, George Maniakes emerged as a general, recovering the situation.
Zoe takes some credit for his successes during the reigns of Romanus and the two
Michaels that include defeating the Emir of Aleppo, capturing Edessa, taking towns in
Sicily, and campaigning against the Bulgars.
Generals and leaders, A–Z 107
PART II
Military events
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Gallic warrior fleeing, temple frieze, terracotta, 2nd century BC Celtic, from
Civitalba, Italy
Generals and leaders, A–Z 109
1
Romans and barbarians, 400–750
GENERALS AND LEADERS
See in Part I:
Aegidius, Aëtius, Alaric, Alboin, Amalasuntha, Athaulf, Attila the Hun,
Brunhild, Charles Martel, Childeric I, Chlothar I, Chlothar II, Clovis I, Dagobert I,
Decius, Fredegund, Gaiseric, Gregory the Great, Gundobad, Guntram Boso, Leovigild,
Merovech, Odoacer, Pepin I, Pepin II, Pepin III, Radbod, Reccared I, Rodrigo I, Romulus
Augustulus, Stilicho, Syagrius, Theoderic I, Theoderic the Ostrogoth, Totila.
BATTLES AND SIEGES
Adda 490, Aquileia 452, Busta Gallorum 552, Cartagena 424, Carthage 695–8,
Catalaunian Plains 451, Dorestad 695, Frigidius 394, Naissus 269, Orléans 451, 463,
Pavia 476, 568–71, Pollentia 402, Ravenna 490–3, 537, 539–40, Rome 410, 455, 472,
537–8, 593, Soissons 486, 719, Tertry 687, Tolbiac 496, Tours (Poitiers) c.732,
Transductine Promontories 711, Voulon 507.
OUTLINE OF EVENTS
There is debate over the nature, speed and effect of the collapse of the Western Roman
Empire. The Eastern Empire continued, transforming itself into the Byzantine Empire.
Before the losses of the west, the Eastern Empire had already become dominant with a
new capital at Constantinople.
We are concerned with the course and impact of the barbarian invasions, and the
degree of continuity of Roman military methods. The barbarians were large, tribal units,
many nomadic—though now often seeking land to settle. We know little of their
zv104
history
from their own point of view as they were mostly non-literate. Information comes from
their enemies.
Barbarian pressure was greatest on the river boundaries of the empire such as the
Rhine and Danube, a pressure that was almost constant in the Middle Ages. In the early
medieval period came the Huns, Franks and Visigoths; later the Mongols and Turks—
among others.
Barbarian captives were employed within the empire, often militarily. By the 4th
century many leading defenders were barbarians, such as the Vandal Stilicho. Many
barbarians settled within the Roman world and became part of it.
The Romans had been threatened by barbarians from the 1st century AD, when they
defeated the legions of Augustus. In the 3rd century the frontier began to collapse under
Goth and German attack. The Goths killed the Emperor Decius in 251 but were beaten at
N
aissus in 269. A revived Empire delayed barbarian progress but in the 4th century a new
advance began. The Visigoths defeated and killed the Emperor Valens at Adrianople,
378, and were given lands to settle.