Bradbury Jim. The Routledge Companion to Medieval Warfare

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RAINULF (RANNULF) DRENGOT OF AVERSA (d.1045)

The first independent Norman lord in southern Italy, hired as a mercenary by Melus o

Bari. Rainulf was ‘a man adorned with all the virtues that become a knight’. He fought in

the campaigns of Melus, including the disaster at Cannae. He was employed by Sergius

IV of Naples, fighting to recover his territory. In 1030 Sergius rewarded Rainulf with the

lordship of Aversa, where Rainulf built a castle. Rainulf married Sergius’ sister, widow

and heiress of the Duke of Gaeta. Rainulf encouraged new arrivals from Normandy. He

changed his allegiance to the Prince of Capua, marrying his niece, and then to the Prince

of Salerno. Conrad II (HRE) recognised Rainulf as Count of Aversa in 1038. His son

Richard became Prince of Capua.

RALPH THE TIMID, OF MANTES, EARL OF HEREFORD (d.1057)

Son of Drogo count of the Vexin and Godgifu, sister of Edward the Confessor. Edward

rought Ralph to England, making him Earl of Hereford in 1050. Ralph married Gytha

and had a son Harold. He was a possible successor to the childless Edward. He co-

commanded the fleet against the Godwins in 1052. His main claim to military

significance came from fighting the Welsh under Gruffydd and Aelfgar on 24 October

1055 near Hereford. Ralph had trained his men to fight on horseback in the Norman and

Frankish fashion, which was ‘against their custom’, and they were beaten. His flight

earned the nickname ‘the Timid’. He died on 21 December.

RAMIRO II, KING OF LEÓN (d.952)

King from 927 on the abdication of his brother Alfonso IV. He captured Madrid from

the Muslims in 932. Zaragoza was lost in 937 to Abd-al-Rāhman. Ramiro gained revenge

with victories at Simancas and Alhandega in 939, and Talavera in 951. His son Ordoño

III succeeded after a civil war.

RAYMOND, COUNT OF POITIERS, PRINCE OF ANTIOCH (d.1149)

Raymond went to the Middle East in 1136, the year he inherited Poitiers. He married

Constance heiress to Antioch and became its ruler. As uncle of Louis VII’s wife, he was

expected to assist the Second Crusade

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ut argued with Louis over its objectives and was

suspected of having an affair with Louis’ wife, Eleanor of Aquitaine. Raymond left the

Crusade to its own disasters. He defeated Nur ed-Din at Famiya in 1148 but was defeated

and killed by Shirkuh the following year at Inab on 29 June, his head sent in a silver case

to the Caliph of Baghdad.

RAYMOND OF ST GILLES, IV COUNT OF TOULOUSE, I COUNT OF

TRIPOLI (d.1105)

Leader of the largest contingent on the First Crusade. He fought in Spain against

Muslims. He was at the siege and capture of Antioch, quarrelling with Bohemond over its

control. He became ill but was at the taking of Jerusalem. He was not elected as ruler o

the new kingdom but became Count of Tripoli. In 1101 he captured Ankara but was

defeated by the Turks at Mersivan in Anatolia. He was taken by Christian enemies and

handed to Tancred who imprisoned him at Antioch, though soon released. He won

outside Tripoli in 1102, establishing the new county. He took Tortosa but failed to take

Tripoli itself—though he continued to attack it. A burning roof fell on his head in 1104.

He never recovered, and died on 28 February, still hoping to take Tripoli.

RAYMOND VI, COUNT OF TOULOUSE (1156–1222)

Generals and leaders, A–Z 81

Count from 1194, succeeding his father Raymond V. The papal legate Peter de

Castelnau was killed in 1208 at St Gilles and Raymond was blamed as a sympathiser

though not himself a Cathar. The pope called a Crusade. Raymond submitted and

humiliated himself with a public flogging. The Crusade went ahead to invade southern

France. Raymond joined the crusade for a time but then deserted. He and his Spanish

allies were defeated by the crusaders at Muret in 1213. Raymond lost his county in 1215.

He spent time in Spain. He failed to recover his county. He died in Toulouse in 1222,

excommunicate, so his body remained unburied in its coffin. By the 16th century rats had

eaten the coffin and the bones had vanished.

RAYMOND VII, COUNT OF TOULOUSE (1197–1249)

Count from 1215 to 1249. His father was dispossessed in 1215 when Simon de

Montfort the Elder, claimed the county. Simon was recognised by Philip II. Raymond

retained a reduced territory. In 1217 he was welcomed when returning to Toulouse.

Simon died in 1218 when besieging Toulouse. Raymond recovered much of his territory

including Carcassonne and Béziers. He defeated Simon’s son Amaury at Baziège in

1219. Prince Louis besieged Toulouse in 1219 but abandoned the attempt. Raymond was

condemned by the papacy for supporting heretics. Louis VIII led a new Crusade south

and conquered Toulouse. Louis IX granted Raymond the county for life in 1229. He

rebelled in 1242 but his supporters were defeated. The succession was settled by the

marriage of Raymond’s daughter, Joan, to Alphonse of Poitiers, Louis’

rother. Raymond

died in Milau and was later buried at Fontevrault.

RECCARED I, KING OF THE VISIGOTHS (d.601)

Son of Leovigild, whom he succeeded in Spain in 586. This was arguably the high

oint of Visigothic power. Reccared converted from Arianism to Roman Catholicism in

587. He was instrumental in resisting Frankish invasion. Reccared in turn invaded

Francia, plundering near Toulouse. He raided along the Rhône, capturing Cabaret and

Beaucaire, and occupying Nîmes. He won victories over the Basques and the Byzantines.

RENAUD DE DAMMARTIN, COUNT OF BOULOGNE (1165–1227)

Renaud’s family were castellans in the Île-de-France from the 11th century. His

parents were Aubry and Mabille. He was brought up at the court of Louis VII, who

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knighted him. He repudiated his first wife, Marie de Châtillon the king’s cousin, to marry

the heiress Ida of Boulogne in 1190. Renaud was recognised as count by the king but was

then involved in a quarrel at court. He allied with Richard the Lionheart and then paid

homage to King John as a counter to Philip Augustus in 1199, making peace in 1201.

Philip Hurepel, Philip Augustus’ illegitimate son, was to marry Renaud’s daughter

Matilda (then aged one). Renaud returned to his French allegiance, receiving John’s

former county of Mortain. He became embroiled in war against Philip’s cousin, the

ishop of Beauvais. Renaud was accused of various crimes and sins, including attacks on

the Church and parading his concubines in public. Philip demanded the return of Mortain,

which Renaud refused. Philip seized Mortain and exiled Renaud, who did homage to

John in 1212. He recruited allies against Philip, joining the attack on the French fleet at

Damme. He opposed Philip at Bouvines in 1214, though he argued against fighting. He

was among the commanders of the right. Renaud, on horseback bearing an ash lance,

fought on to the end with his knights and mercenaries. He formed pikemen in a circle,

The routledge companion to medieval warfare 82

two men deep. He and his knights issued from this circle to fight, withdrawing inside it

for protection. Numbers told and Renaud was unhorsed and captured. Philip promised

him his life but learned that Renaud was plotting against him. Renaud was imprisoned in

a tower, chained to a log that had to be lifted for him to move to the toilet. Boulogne went

to Philip Hurepel. After Philip Augustus’ death, Renaud’s hopes of release were dashed

and he committed suicide on 21 April.

RICHARD I, COEUR DE LION (THE LIONHEART), KING OF ENGLAND

(1157–99)

One of the greater military kings. King from 1189 on the death of his father Henry II.

During Henry’s reign he governed Aquitaine, his mother Eleanor’s inheritance. He

rebelled against his father in 1173–4, and in 1189 when allied to Philip II of France,

ringing Henry to a humiliating submission. He and Philip led the Third Crusade in 1190.

Richard travelled via Cyprus, which he conquered and later passed to Guy of Lusignan.

In Cyprus he married Berengaria of Navarre. In the crusade Acre was taken and the

Muslims defeated at Arsuf in 1191 and Jaffa in 1192. However, Richard turned back

efore reaching Jerusalem. He made an agreement with Saladin. During his return he was

captured and imprisoned by Henry VI (HRE). He was ransomed and released in 1194.

His brother John created problems in England but Richard resumed power and pardoned

John. During his imprisonment Philip II had made gains in France. Richard fought to

recover the losses. He built the castle of Château-Gaillard. He won minor engagements at

Fréteval in 1194 and Gisors in 1198. The gains were negated by his sudden death when

besieging Châlus-Chabrol. He received a fatal crossbow wound, dying in his mother’s

arms on 6 April. His body was buried at Fontevrault, his heart at Rouen. His brother John

succeeded.

RICHARD I, DUKE OF NORMANDY (932–96)

Son of William Longsword, whom he succeeded in 942. As a boy he was sent to learn

the Scandinavian tongue at Rouen. He married Gunnor, of Viking descent. His daughter

Emma married Aethelred II of England in 1002, paving the way for the Norman

Conquest. Richard was ‘a tall man, handsome and strongly built, with a long beard and

grey hair’. He faced a coalition of enemies from 954, including King Lothar and the

Counts of Anjou and Flanders. He defeated them at Rouen and called in Viking aid.

Vikings were still allowed to use Norman ports. Richard was a supporter of the Capetian

family. A peasant revolt in Normandy in 996 was suppressed by the nobility.

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RICHARD II, KING OF ENGLAND (1367–1400)

King 1377–99, called Richard of Bordeaux from his birthplace, son of the Black Prince

who died in 1376, so that Richard succeeded his grandfather Edward III in 1377. His

uncle, John of Gaunt duke of Lancaster, dominated the minority. The imposition of a Poll

Tax led to the Peasants’ Revolt in 1381, when Richard’s courage defused the situation.

He married Anne of Bohemia in 1382. He was opposed by the Appellants, who removed

his Chancellor Michael de la Pole and defeated royalist forces at Radcot Bridge in 1387.

He recovered power with the aid of John of Gaunt. Richard made an agreement with

France in 1396. He was not a successful military commander, having gained nothing in

France and led a failed expedition to Ireland. The banishment of Henry Bolingbroke led

to the latter’s return to seek his inheritance. Richard surrendered to Henry and was

Generals and leaders, A–Z 83

imprisoned. He abdicated and Bolingbroke became Henry IV. Richard was probably put

to death in February at Pontefract Castle. He was buried in the Dominican Priory at

King’s Langley in Hertfordshire. Henry V later moved the body to Westminster Abbey.

RICHARD II, DUKE OF NORMANDY (996–1026)

Son of Richard I. His sister Emma married Aethelred II in 1002 and then Cnut in 1017.

Aethelred’s exiled sons by Emma, Edward (the Confessor) and Alfred, were brought up

at the Norman court. The Normans assisted their attempts to recover the English throne,

which Edward later succeeded in doing. Richard maintained links with the Vikings, still

allowed to use Norman ports. They aided him against the Count of Blois-Chartres in

1013–14. In the 1020s Richard joined a coalition against that count. He supported the

Capetian dynasty. He liked to work in the tower at Rouen and was ‘in the habit of looking

down over the city walls, the fields and the river’. He married the Breton, Judith, and then

the Norman Papia. His sons by Judith, Richard and Robert, succeeded in turn.

RICHARD III, KING OF ENGLAND (1452–85)

King from 1483, son of Richard duke of York. He became Duke of Gloucester in 1461.

On the death of his brother, Edward IV, Richard seized the throne rather than protecting

the rights of his nephews, the Princes in the Tower. His supposed deformities, including a

hunchback, probably came from Tudor propaganda rather than fact. In 1472 he married

Anne Neville, daughter of Warwick the Kingmaker. The manner of his nephews’ death is

uncertain but Richard was probably responsible. He resented Edward’s marriage to their

mother, Elizabeth Woodville. Under Edward he had played a major part in the victories at

Barnet and Tewkesbury. He accompanied Edward to France in 1475. He defended the

Scottish border. As king he suppressed the 1483 rebellion and executed Buckingham.

Richard’s son Edward died in 1484. When Henry Tudor invaded in 1485 Richard was

defeated and killed at Bosworth on 22 August, due largely to baronial treachery. His

naked corpse was exposed to public view in Leicester for two days before burial. During

the Dissolution of the Monasteries his remains were removed from their tomb and thrown

in the River Soar.

RIDWAN, EMIR OF ALEPPO (d.1113)

Emir from 1095, son and successor of Tutush. He ruled this region of northern Syria at

the time of the First Crusade. He and his brother Duqaq were bitter enemies. Ridwan

suffered losses from the Crusade. He failed to relieve Antioch and was defeated there in

1098. He recovered part of the principality of Antioch. He won at Ma’arrat al-

uman and

assisted in the victory at Mersivan in 1101. He increased his power by defeating and

killing Kilij Arslan of Rum at the River Khabur in 1107.

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He was prepared to compromise

with either side and his death made Christian Edessa more vulnerable.

RIENZI (RIENZO), COLA DI (NICHOLAS) (1313–54)

A populist leader in Rome, claiming to be a bastard of Henry VII (HRE) but said to be

the son of an innkeeper and a laundress. He opposed the papacy’s move to Avignon from

Rome but his chief enemy was the nobility. He roused support by public speeches,

seeking self-rule for Rome, acting as a dictator with the title of Tribune. Rome briefly

became a self-governing republic. He suppressed a rising by the Colonnas in 1347 but

was forced to flee. He took refuge with Charles IV (HRE) who handed him to the pope.

Rienzi was imprisoned at Avignon in 1352. Innocent VI restored him as Senator in Rome

The routledge companion to medieval warfare 84

under Alborñoz in 1353. A rising against the regime in 1354 led to Rienzi’s death, torn to

ieces, on 8 October. He became a hero of those seeking Italian unity, subject of a

Wagner opera.

ROBERT I, THE BRUCE, KING OF SCOTS (1274–1329)

Earl of Carrick from 1292, king from 1306, son of Robert Bruce the Elder and

Marjorie Countess of Carrick. He fought for Edward I against William Wallace. He

sought the throne and killed his rival, Red John Comyn, in 1306. He was defeated by the

English under Aymer de Valence at Methven in 1306. He took refuge in Ireland,

returning in 1307. He defeated the Earl of Argyll at Loch Etive to control most o

Scotland. He aimed against Stirling and brought Edward I north to die

en route

. In 1314

he defeated Edward II at Bannockburn, a major step to independence. His brother

Edward invaded Ireland from 1315, where Robert joined him in 1317—though the

venture failed. Robert captured Berwick in 1318. He warded off an English invasion in

1322 by victory at Byland. He died on 7 June, possibly of leprosy. His son David II

succeeded.

ROBERT I (THE MAGNIFICENT/THE DEVIL), DUKE OF NORMANDY

(d.1035)

Father of William the Conqueror, son of Duke Richard II, the weakest link in a chain

of great dukes. He was described as having a good physique with ‘an honest face and

handsome appearance’. He married Cnut’s daughter, Estrith, but repudiated her. His

mistress Herlève, reputedly a tanner’s (or undertaker’s) daughter from Falaise, bore his

son William. There was a rumour that he poisoned his brother Richard III, who died a

year after inheriting the duchy. Robert became duke in 1027. There was much

disturbance in the duchy under him. A number of castles were built. In 1033 he organised

a fleet at Fécamp for the sons of Aethelred II, Edward (the Confessor) and Alfred, against

England. A storm ruined its chance. His support helped Edward to gain the throne later.

Robert went on pilgrimage to the Holy Land but died at Nicaea when returning.

ROBERT II THE PIOUS, KING OF FRANCE (970–1031)

King from 996, crowned during his father Hugh Capet’s reign in 987. His reign

established the Capetian dynasty. His nickname came from an interest in Church affairs.

The belief that French kings could heal by touch began with Robert. He married three

times, to Suzanna of Italy (repudiated), Bertha of Burgundy (separated) and Constance o

Arles (divorce attempted). Constance was the mother of his successor. Robert made an

unsuccessful attack on Baldwin IV of Flanders in 1006 after the latter took Valenciennes.

Robert turned royal interest on the south. He gained the duchy of Burgundy for his son

Henry in 1015. He died on 20 July and his son Henry I succeeded.

ROBERT II, CURTHOSE, DUKE OF NORMANDY (1052–1134)

Son of William the Conqueror, duke from 1087. He helped complete the conquest o

England, establishing the castle at Newcastle in 1080. He rebelled against his

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father in

1078, allying with the King of France. In 1079 Curthose defeated his father at Gerberoi,

where Curthose had been besieged before making a sortie. Curthose unseated his father

and wounded him. Later they were reconciled. On the Conqueror’s death Robert

succeeded to Normandy, but not England, which he sought unsuccessfully to take from

Rufus. Curthose joined the First Crusade in 1096. He led an important charge at Ascalon

Generals and leaders, A–Z 85

in 1099, capturing the Egyptian banner. He returned without seeking territory in the Holy

Land. He married Sybil of Conversano. He tried to recover England from his youngest

rother, Henry I, who succeeded in his absence. Robert invaded England in 1102 but

agreed terms. In 1106 he lost the battle and Normandy to Henry at Tinchebrai. Henry

imprisoned him for life. Robert’s son, William Clito, remained a threat to Henry I until

his death in 1128. Robert was kept at Wareham, Devizes and finally Cardiff, where he

died probably on 3 February. He was buried at Gloucester, where his effigy is in the

cathedral.

ROBERT OF BELLÊME, EARL OF SHREWSBURY

A noted rebel against the sons of William the Conqueror, son of Roger of Montgomery

and Mabel of Bellême, he inherited their lands in England and Normandy. He became

Earl of Shrewsbury on the death of his brother Hugh in 1098. He brought warhorses from

Spain to England and was a great castle builder, responsible for Bridgnorth, Shrewsbury,

Arundel and Tickhill, noted for their broad moats. Orderic Vitalis says he was a

‘resourceful engineer’ who designed Gisors. At Bréval he employed an ingenious

invention as a siege engine. He held 34 castles and was lord of thousands of men. He was

noted for harshness—

utting out eyes, hacking off hands and feet, and torturing. He

opposed Henry I in support of Robert Curthose and lost his English lands as a result. He

then rebelled in Normandy but made peace and fought for Curthose at Tinchebrai in

1106, escaping from the defeat. He made terms with Henry but supported Curthose’s son

William Clito. Possibly acting for Louis VI of France he fell into Henry I’s hands, was

rought to trial and chained in a dungeon. He was imprisoned at Cherbourg and then

Wareham. He was alive in 1131 but when he died is unknown. Robert’s son William

Talvas continued to oppose Henry.

ROBERT OF GLOUCESTER (OF CAEN, FITZROY), EARL OF GLOUCESTER

(c.1090–1147)

Eldest illegitimate son of Henry I. His mother was probably Sibyl, daughter of Robert

Corbet, a burgess of Caen. Robert was made Earl of Gloucester by his father in 1122,

marrying the Gloucester heiress of Robert Fitz Hamon. Robert was slow to recognise

Stephen as king but eventually came to his court. Robert’s declaration for his half-sister

Matilda in 1138 marked the start of civil war. Robert, ‘the chief of the king’s enemies’,

gave Matilda her best hope. He brought her to England, landing at Arundel, and remained

a loyal supporter. He commanded for her in the war against Stephen from 1139 with

notable successes, including Lincoln in 1141 when Stephen was defeated and captured.

The Rout of Winchester was a victory for Stephen’s supporters, when Robert was

captured. Stephen and Robert were exchanged and released. Robert undertook a mission

to bring Matilda’s husband Geoffrey of Anjou into the war, but failed. Robert took

Wareham and defeated Stephen at Wilton in 1143. Robert’s death marked the end o

Matilda’s hopes of victory. She abandoned the country, leaving her claim to her son

Henry. Robert died at Bristol on 31 October. His son William succeeded to the earldom.

ROBERT GUISCARD (THE WARY/WILY), DE HAUTEVILLE, DUKE OF

APULIA (c.1025–1085)

Norman duke in Italy, of humble origin, the son of a lesser knight, Tancred de

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Hauteville in Normandy, by his second wife Fredesendis. He was one of the many

The routledge companion to medieval warfare 86

Hautevilles to go to southern Italy, arriving in 1047. He began in Calabria as a landless

rigand leader. Anna Comnena described him as cunning and brave, tall, well built, with

ruddy complexion and fair hair, his eyes sparkling. He gained lands to become the major

Norman leader. He married Aubrée from a southern Norman family. He repudiated her

for Sigelgaita, sister of the Lombard ruler of Salerno. Robert received the castle o

Scribla but abandoned it for San Marco Argentano. He fought the papal army at Civitate

in 1053, leading the left wing. He expanded Norman control in southern Italy, taking

Calabria and Apulia. At Melfi in 1059 the pope recognised Robert as Duke of Apulia and

Calabria and ‘future Duke of Sicily’. He took Amalfi in 1073 and Salerno in 1076, the

last major Lombard principalities. All Byzantine territories in the region fell to him. Bari

was besieged and taken by 1071. He led the invasion of Sicily from 1060 and the capture

of Palermo in 1072. Thereafter he concentrated on the mainland, delegating Sicily to his

rother Roger. He expanded Norman power in the Mediterranean, mainly at the expense

of Byzantium. He captured Dyrrachium (now in Albania) in 1082 and Corfu in 1084. In

1084 he rescued Gregory VII from Henry IV (HRE), sacking Rome and selling citizens

into slavery. In Cephalonia he caught typhoid, from which many of his men died. He was

taken to Cassiopi in Corfu and died on 17 July. His tomb was at Venosa, his favoured

abbey. The tomb, now gone, carried an inscription to ‘Guiscard, the terror of the world’.

ROBERT DE MOWBRAY (MONTBRAY), EARL OF NORTHUMBERLAND (d.

c.1125)

Rebel against William Rufus in 1088 and 1095, son of Roger de Mowbray. William

the Conqueror made him Earl of Northumberland in c.1085. He was ‘a man of great

odily stature, strong, dark and shaggy, bold and crafty, with an austere and melancholy

countenance’ who hardly ever smiled when he spoke. His castles included Bamburgh.

With his uncle, the bishop of Coutances, he seized Bristol Castle in 1088. From there he

raided Gloucestershire, Somerset and Wiltshire and sacked Bath. The rebellion was

suppressed and Mowbray was exiled to Normandy, allowed to return in 1093, when

Malcolm Canmore King of Scots raided England. Robert ambushed him near the River

Alne, where Malcolm was killed. In spring 1095 Robert again rebelled. He had seized

four Norwegian ships, whose owners appealed to Rufus. Robert was summoned to court

and his refusal to come initiated the rebellion. Rufus marched north. Mowbray seized

ewcastle. Rufus besieged Tynemouth, which surrendered after two months (some

historians believe it was Newcastle not Tynemouth). Rufus approached Mowbray in

Bamburgh, leaving troops to continue the siege. Mowbray tried to escape but only to his

own monastery at Tynemouth, where he held out six days before being wounded and

captured. Robert was taken before the walls of his castle, where his wife Matilda still

held out. They threatened to put out his eyes unless she surrendered, which she did. He

was kept in Windsor Castle for the rest of his life, another 30 years.

RODRIGO I (RODERIC), KING OF THE VISIGOTHS (d.711)

King during the Arab invasion of Spain, previously

dux

of Baetica. He was at war with

Agila, son of the king, when the Arab invasion began. Rodrigo won broader but not

complete support. Possibly his political enemies invited in the Arabs. Rodrigo became

king in 710 and immediately faced serious invasion from Africa, while rebel Visigoths

and Basques threatened the north. The Arab invaders under Tāriq defeated and killed

Generals and leaders, A–Z 87

Rodrigo at the Transductine Promontories (or Guadalete). The Arabs took Toledo and the

Visigothic kingdom collapsed, leaving most of Iberia in their hands within ten years.

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ROGER I, DE HAUTEVILLE, THE GREAT, COUNT (c.1040–1101)

Leading figure in the Norman conquest of Sicily, youngest son of Tancred de

Hauteville. He arrived in Italy in 1056. He was tall and well built with a cheerful, open

manner. He married Judith daughter of the Count of Evreux, Eremberga daughter of the

Count of Mortain, and Adelaide daughter of Manfred. Roger’s older brother Robert

Guiscard established him at Mileto. The invasion of Sicily with Guiscard began in 1060.

Roger won at Cerami in 1063 and Miselmeri in 1068. Palermo was captured in 1072.

Guiscard saw himself as the overall ruler, appointing his brother Count of Sicily while

retaining suzerainty—

ut Guiscard did not return to Sicily. The completion of the

conquest was Roger’s work. He allied with Muslims, whom he used as mercenaries.

Taormina was taken in 1079 and Syracuse in 1086. With the fall of Noto, Sicily was in

Norman hands by 1091. In 1090–1 Roger invaded and conquered Malta and Gozo. After

the death of Guiscard, Roger extended his power on the mainland, becoming the

dominant Norman ruler in the south. His position was recognised by the papacy. He died

on 22 June and was buried in Santa Trinita at Mileto. His son and successor was Roger II.

ROGER II, KING OF SICILY (1095–1154)

King from 1130, son of Roger the Great Count by his third wife Adelaide. He

succeeded his older brother as Count of Sicily in 1105. Adelaide defended his position

until he came of age. He became Duke of Apulia in 1127. Roger was recognised as king

y Anacletus II and crowned on Christmas Day. Anacletus lost his struggle against a rival

ope, but Roger retained the crown though having to suppress numerous revolts. He was

opposed by Pope Innocent II and Lothar III (HRE), who made Rainulf of Alife Duke o

Apulia. Roger was defeated at Nocera in 1132 and Rignano in 1137. In 1139 he gained

revenge by winning the Rout of Galuccio. Innocent II was captured and, in return for

release, recognised Roger. Sicily was a cosmopolitan state, with the right to worship for

Greek Orthodox, Muslims and Christians. Sicily became a Mediterranean naval power.

During the Second Crusade Roger attacked Byzantium, recovering Corfu and raiding

Corinth and Athens. He conquered lands in North Africa. In 1146–7 he captured Tripoli,

Tunis and Algeria, taking Bona in 1153. He died at Palermo on 26 February, probably o

heart disease. The body was taken to Cefalu and then Palermo. His tomb survives. He

married three times and his only surviving son, William I, succeeded.

ROGER DE FLOR (RUTGER VON DER BLUME) (d.1305)

Captain of the Catalan Company, a German by birth. His father was falconer to

Frederick II. Roger joined the Knights Templar and was at the siege of Acre in 1291. He

sold escape places on his ship, for which he was expelled from the Templars. He became

a leader of pirates and then mercenaries. The Catalan Company (of mercenaries) was

employed by Pedro of Aragón in 1281 in North Africa and Sicily, and by Byzantium in

1302—when its leader, Roger, was made a

megas dux

. He married the emperor’s niece

Maria. Roger rose in the middle of his wedding night to stop a fight between his men and

the Genoese. The Catalan Company inflicted defeats on the Turks. Failure of pay led to

mutiny. Roger’s fleet occupied Chios, Lemnos and Lesbos. His men killed the son o

Byzantium’s Alan mercenary commander, George Gircon. Michael IX negotiated but,

The routledge companion to medieval warfare 88

when Roger came to Adrianople, Gircon murdered him on 6 April. The Catalan

Company attacked Byzantine territory, taking the Latin duchy of Athens.

RÖGNVALD, EARL OF MØRE

Earl of Møre in Norway and founder of the earldom of Orkney. He passed Orkney to

his brother Sigurđ, the first earl. Rögnvald was killed in a dispute with Hálfdan son of

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Harold Finehair. According to saga he cut Harold’s hair (the origin of the nickname).

Harold gave Orkney and Shetland to him. Rögnvald’s illegitimate son, Torf-Einar, later

succeeded to Orkney. A second son was possibly Rollo (Hrólfr), founder of Normandy.

ROLAND (HRUODLAND) (d.778)

Hero of Roncesvalles, better known in literature than history through the

Chanson de

oland

. He figures in Ariosto’s

Orlando Furioso

. The fictional story is that Roland died

ravely at Roncesvalles. The historical event was recorded in two contemporary sources.

Charlemagne’s army was returning from an expedition to Spain. In a pass through the

Pyrenees the rearguard was attacked by Basques (not Muslims), who inflicted a

damaging defeat. Roland was

Praefectus

or Count of the Breton March, responsible for

the Breton border. He came from a noble Frankish family in which this position was

hereditary.

ROLLO OF NORMANDY (ROLF THE GANGER/GÖNGU-HRÓLFR) (c.860–

c.928)

The Viking leader who founded the duchy of Normandy though not himself called

duke. His nickname (the ganger) was said to come from being too big to ride so that he

always had to walk. He may have been the son of Rögnvald of Møre, exiled from

orway by Harold Finehair. Rollo probably joined raids on Scotland, Ireland and

England. He led a war-

and to attack the Frankish coast. His group settled on the Seine.

In 911 the West Frankish King, Charles the Simple, agreed the Treaty of Saint-Clair-sur-

Epte with Rollo, probably granting the area around Rouen in return for defending Francia

against Viking attacks and converting to Christianity. Rollo was defeated at Chartres and

could not bargain from strength, so Dudo’s version of the event should not be accepted

without question—where he seized the king’s foot and pulled him over. The territory

granted was probably Upper Normandy. Rollo was baptised in 912. Normandy’s capital,

Rouen, is named after him. He and his descendants extended their territories and

established the duchy of Normandy (the land of the Northmen). His son, William

Longsword, succeeded. William the Conqueror was a direct descendant.

ROMANUS I, LECAPENUS, BYZANTINE EMPEROR (d.948)

Co-emperor from 920 to 944 with Constantine VII, admiral for Leo VI, co-emperor

and effective ruler for Leo’s son Constantine VII, who married Romanus’ daughter.

Romanus was the son of Theophylact the Unbearable—an Armenian peasant and soldier.

In 921 Symeon the Bulgar was defeated. Symeon’s son and successor, Peter, married

Romanus’ granddaughter and Serbia became subject to Byzantium. Byzantine power

recovered in the east. The Saracens were pushed back, Melitene and Manzikert captured.

Romanus’ naval experience paid dividends. In 924 at Lemnos he defeated a Saracen fleet

under Leo of Tripoli, and in 941 the Russians were beaten in the Bosphorus. In 944

Romanus was deposed and entered a monastery at Proti, having himself scourged for his

sins before 300 monks. He tried to promote his numerous sons but without success. He

Generals and leaders, A–Z 89

died on 15 June and was buried beside his wife in the monastery in Constantinople that

he had founded.

ROMANUS II, PORPHYROGENITUS, BYZANTINE EMPEROR (939–63)

Emperor from 959, son of Constantine VII. When his first wife died, Romanus married

Theophano, an innkeeper’s daughter. Nikephorus Phokas, his general, recovered Crete

from the Saracens in 960–1. Another general, Nikephorus’

rother Leo, defeated the

Saracens under Sayf ad-Dawlah at Kulindros. Romanus’

rief reign saw considerable

success. He died on 15 March in a hunting accident. Theophano married Nikephorus

Phokas. Both Romanus’ sons survived to be emperors—Basil II the Bulgar Slayer and

Constantine VIII.

zv8 4

ROMANUS III, ARGYRUS, BYZANTINE EMPEROR (d.1034)

Emperor from 1028. Constantine VIII wanted Romanus to succeed him and marry his

daughter Zoe. On threat of blinding, Romanus put his wife of 40 years in a nunnery, and

agreed. Constantine died three days after the marriage. Romanus came from a family o

Anatolian landowners. He was a judge and administrator but was interested in the science

of warfare (though completely ignorant of it). In 1030 he campaigned against the Emir o

Aleppo but was defeated. In 1031 George Maniakes defeated the emir and recovered

Edessa. Both husband and wife took lovers. Romanus drowned while swimming on 11

April, though murder was suspected. Zoe married her lover who succeeded as Michael

IV.

ROMANUS IV, DIOGENES, BYZANTINE EMPEROR (d.1072)

Emperor from 1068 through marriage to Constantine X’s widow Eudocia. His family

had estates in Cappadocia. His father, accused of treachery, jumped to his death from a

cliff. Romanus was a general and Governor of Sardica for Constantine X. He defeated the

Pechenegs but Constantine accused him of conspiracy, recalled him and sentenced him to

death—commuted to exile. Eudocia chose him to replace Constantine. Romanus made

efforts to save Byzantium. He organised expeditions against the Seljuk Turks, winning at

Sebastia and Heraclea. In 1071 he was defeated and captured by Alp Arslan at Manzikert,

one of the greatest disasters in Byzantine history. The Seljuks took Armenia and most o

Asia Minor. Romanus was released on agreeing to cede lands and pay tribute. In 1071

Bari

;

the last Byzantine territory in southern Italy, fell to the Normans. Before Romanus

returned to Constantinople af ter Manzikert, Michael VII was proclaimed emperor.

Romanus raised a force but was defeated, captured, blinded, and sent to the monastery at

Proti, where he died on 24 October.

ROMULUS AUGUSTULUS, ROMAN EMPEROR (d. c.510)

The last Western Emperor, though the replaced Julius Nepos survived in Dalmatia until

his murder in 480. His father, the commander Orestes, raised Romulus to the purple in

475. Odoacer defeated and killed Orestes. Romulus was deposed by Odoacer in 476 but

allowed to retire to southern Italy.

RUDOLF I, HABSBURG, KING OF THE ROMANS (1218–91)

The first Habsburg ruler of Germany. His election in 1273 ended the interregnum in

Germany. He sought but failed to achieve imperial coronation. He opposed Ottokar II o

Bohemia. In 1276 he besieged Vienna, forcing Ottokar to do homage. The latter was

defeated and killed at the Marchfeld in 1278. Vienna became the Habsburg capital o

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