Bhushan B. Nanotribology and Nanomechanics: An Introduction
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XXII Contents
20 Gecko Feet: Natural Hairy Attachment Systems
for Smart Adhesion – Mechanism, Modeling and Development
of Bio-Inspired Materials
Bharat Bhushan ................................................... 1073
20.1 Introduction . ................................................ 1073
20.2 HairyAttachmentSystems..................................... 1074
20.3 TokayGecko ................................................ 1077
20.3.1 ConstructionofTokayGecko............................ 1077
20.3.2 Adaptation to Rough Surfaces. ........................... 1078
20.3.3 Peeling............................................... 1081
20.3.4 SelfCleaning ......................................... 1083
20.4 AttachmentMechanisms ...................................... 1084
20.4.1 VanderWaalsForces................................... 1085
20.4.2 Capillary Forces . ...................................... 1086
20.5 ExperimentalAdhesionTestTechniquesandData................. 1087
20.5.1 Adhesion under Ambient Conditions . . . . .................. 1088
20.5.2 EffectsofTemperature.................................. 1090
20.5.3 EffectsofHumidity .................................... 1090
20.5.4 Effects of Hydrophobicity . . . ............................ 1092
20.6 AdhesionModeling........................................... 1092
20.6.1 SpringModel ......................................... 1092
20.6.2 SingleSpringContactAnalysis .......................... 1094
20.6.3 The Multi-Level Hierarchical Spring Analysis .............. 1095
20.6.4 Adhesion Results of the Multi-level Hierarchical
SpringModel ......................................... 1099
20.6.5 Capillary Effects....................................... 1103
20.6.6 Adhesion Results that Account for Capillary Effects......... 1104
20.7 Modeling of Biomimetic Fibrillar Structures . . . . .................. 1106
20.7.1 FiberModel........................................... 1107
20.7.2 SingleFiberContactAnalysis ........................... 1108
20.7.3 Constraints ........................................... 1108
20.7.4 Numericalsimulation................................... 1112
20.7.5 Resultsanddiscussion.................................. 1114
20.8 FabricationofBiomimetricGeckoSkin.......................... 1118
20.8.1 SingleLevelHierarchicalStructures ...................... 1119
20.8.2 Multi-Level Hierarchical Structures . ...................... 1123
20.9 Closure..................................................... 1125
20.A Typical Rough Surfaces . ...................................... 1127
References....................................................... 1130
Contents XXIII
Part V Applications
21 Micro/Nanotribology and Micro/Nanomechanics
of Magnetic Storage Devices
Bharat Bhushan ................................................... 1137
21.1 Introduction . ................................................ 1138
21.1.1 MagneticStorageDevices............................... 1138
21.1.2 Micro/Nanotribologyand Micro/Nanomechanics
andTheirApplications.................................. 1142
21.2 Experimental................................................ 1142
21.2.1 Description of AFM/FFM............................... 1142
21.2.2 TestSpecimens........................................ 1146
21.3 Surface Roughness ........................................... 1146
21.4 FrictionandAdhesion ........................................ 1151
21.4.1 MagneticHeadMaterials................................ 1151
21.4.2 MagneticMedia ....................................... 1153
21.5 ScratchingandWear.......................................... 1156
21.5.1 NanoscaleWear ....................................... 1156
21.5.2 MicroscaleScratching.................................. 1157
21.5.3 MicroscaleWear....................................... 1167
21.6 Indentation.................................................. 1182
21.6.1 PicoscaleIndentation................................... 1182
21.6.2 NanoscaleIndentation.................................. 1183
21.6.3 LocalizedSurfaceElasticity ............................. 1185
21.7 Lubrication.................................................. 1187
21.7.1 Boundary Lubrication Studies............................ 1189
21.8 Closure..................................................... 1192
References....................................................... 1194
22 Nanotribology and Materials Characterization of MEMS/NEMS
and BioMEMS/BioNEMS Materials and Devices
Bharat Bhushan ................................................... 1199
22.1 Introduction . ................................................ 1199
22.1.1 Introduction to MEMS.................................. 1202
22.1.2 Introduction to NEMS .................................. 1204
22.1.3 BioMEMS/BioNEMS.................................. 1204
22.1.4 Tribological Issues in MEMS/NEMS
and BioMEMS/BioNEMS .............................. 1205
22.2 Tribological Studies of Silicon and Related Materials .............. 1224
22.2.1 Virgin and Treated/Coated Silicon Samples . . .............. 1225
22.2.2 Tribological Properties of Polysilicon Films and SiC Film .... 1231
22.3
L
ubrication Studies for MEMS/NEMS .......................... 1235
22.3.1 Perfluoropolyether Lubricants. . . . ........................ 1235
22.3.2 Self-Assembled Monolayers (SAMs). . . ................... 1240
XXIV Contents
22.3.3 Hard Diamond-Like Carbon (DLC) Coatings . .............. 1245
22.4 Tribological Studies of Biological Molecules
on Silicon-Based Surfaces and of Coated Polymer Surfaces ......... 1245
22.4.1 Adhesion, Friction, and Wear of Biomolecules
on Si-Based Surfaces . . ................................. 1245
22.4.2 Adhesion of Coated Polymer Surfaces. . . .................. 1251
22.5 Nanopatterned Surfaces . ...................................... 1253
22.5.1 Analytical Model and Roughness Optimization ............. 1253
22.5.2 ExperimentalValidation ................................ 1256
22.6 Component-LevelStudies ..................................... 1261
22.6.1 Surface Roughness Studies of Micromotor Components . . .... 1261
22.6.2 AdhesionMeasurementsofMicrostructures................ 1263
22.6.3 Microtriboapparatus for Adhesion, Friction,
and Wear of Microcomponents .. . . ....................... 1264
22.6.4 StaticFrictionForce(Stiction)MeasurementsinMEMS ..... 1269
22.6.5 Mechanisms Associated with Observed Stiction Phenomena
in Digital Micromirror Devices (DMD)
andNanomechanicalCharacterization..................... 1273
22.7 Conclusion.................................................. 1278
22.A Appendix Micro/NanofabricationMethods . ...................... 1279
22.A.1 Top-Down Methods . . . ................................. 1279
22.A.2Bottom-UpFabrication(Nanochemistry) .................. 1284
References....................................................... 1285
23 Mechanical Properties of Micromachined Structures
Harold Kahn ..................................................... 1297
23.1 MeasuringMechanicalPropertiesofFilmsonSubstrates ........... 1297
23.1.1 ResidualStressMeasurements ........................... 1298
23.1.2 MechanicalMeasurementsUsingNanoindentation.......... 1299
23.2 MicromachinedStructuresforMeasuringMechanicalProperties..... 1299
23.2.1 PassiveStructures...................................... 1299
23.2.2 ActiveStructures ...................................... 1304
23.3 MeasurementsofMechanicalProperties ......................... 1314
23.3.1 Mechanical Properties of Polysilicon . . . . .................. 1314
23.3.2 MechanicalPropertiesofOtherMaterials.................. 1318
References....................................................... 1320
24 Structural, Nanomechanical, and NanotribologicalCharacterization
of Human Hair Using Atomic Force Microscopy and Nanoindentation
Bharat Bhushan, Carmen LaTorre.................................... 1325
24.1 Introduction . ................................................ 1325
24.2 Human Hair, Skin, and Hair Care Products ....................... 1330
24.2.1 HumanHairandSkin................................... 1330
24.2.2 Hair Care: Cleaning and Conditioning Treatments,
andDamagingProcesses................................ 1339
Contents XXV
24.3 Experimental................................................ 1345
24.3.1 ExperimentalProcedure................................. 1348
24.3.2 HairandSkinSamples.................................. 1361
24.4 StructuralCharacterizationUsinganAFM ....................... 1363
24.4.1 StructureofHairCross-section&LongitudinalSection ...... 1363
24.4.2 StructureofVariousCuticleLayers....................... 1367
24.4.3 Summary............................................. 1373
24.5 Nanomechanical Characterization Using Nanoindentation,
Nanoscratch,andAFM........................................ 1375
24.5.1 Hardness, Young’s Modulus, and Creep ................... 1375
24.5.2 ScratchResistance ..................................... 1387
24.5.3 In-Situ Tensile Deformation Studies
onHumanHairUsingAFM ............................. 1395
24.5.4 Summary............................................. 1401
24.6 Multi-Scale Tribological Characterization ........................ 1402
24.6.1 MacroscaleTribologicalCharacterization.................. 1402
24.6.2 NanotribologicalCharacterizationUsinganAFM .......... 1410
24.6.3 Scale Effects .......................................... 1439
24.6.4 Summary............................................. 1449
24.7 Conditioner Thickness Distribution and Binding Interactions
onHairSurface.............................................. 1451
24.7.1 ConditionerThicknessandAdhesiveForceMapping ........ 1452
24.7.2 Effective Young’s Modulus Mapping . . . ................... 1459
24.7.3 Binding Interactions Between Conditioner and Hair Surface . . 1462
24.7.4 Summary............................................. 1464
24.8 Surface Potential Studies of Human Hair Using Kelvin Probe
Microscopy ................................................. 1465
24.8.1 Effect of Physical Wear and Rubbing with Latex
onSurfacePotential.................................... 1465
24.8.2 Effect of External Voltage and Humidity on Surface Potential . 1471
24.8.3 Summary............................................. 1476
24.9 Closure..................................................... 1476
24.A ShampooandConditionerTreatmentProcedure................... 1479
24.A.1ShampooTreatments................................... 1479
24.A.2ConditionerTreatments................................. 1479
24.B ConditionerThicknessApproximation........................... 1480
References....................................................... 1481
The Editor....................................................... 1487
Index ........................................................... 1489
List of Contributors
Dr. Boris Anczykowski
nanoAnalytics GmbH
Gievenbecker Weg 11
48149 Muenster
Germany
anczykowski@nanoanalytics.com
Prof. Roland Bennewitz
McGill University
Ernest Rutherford Physics Building
3600 rue University
Montréal, QC, H3A 2T8
Canada
roland.bennewitz@mcgill.ca
Prof. Bharat Bhushan
Ohio Eminent Scholar and
The Howard D. Winbigler Professor
Director, Nanoprobe Laboratory
for Bio- & Nanotechnology
and Biomimetics (NLB
2
)
201 W. 19th Avenue
Ohio State University
Columbus, Ohio 43210-1142
USA
bhushan.2@osu.edu
Prof. Donald W. Brenner
North Carolina State University
Department of Materials Science
and Engineering
Raleigh, North Carolina 27695-7909
USA
brenner@ncsu.edu
Prof. Harald Fuchs
University of Muenster
Institute of Physics
Wilhem-Klemm-Str. 10
48149 Muenster
Germany
fuchsh@uni-muenster.de
Prof. Dr. Franz J. Giessibl
University of Regensburg
Institute of Experimental
and Applied Physics
Physics Building, Room PHY 1.1.22
Universitätsstr. 31
93053 Regensburg
Germany
franz.giessibl@
physik.uni-regensburg.de
XXVIII List of Contributors
Dr. Enrico Gnecco
University of Basel
Institute of Physics
Klingelbergstr. 82
4056 Basel
Switzerland
enrico.gnecco@unibas.ch
Prof. Steve Granick
University of Illinois
at Urbana-Champaign
Department of Materials Science
and Engineering
104 S. Goodwin Ave
Urbana, IL 61801
USA
sgranick@uiuc.edu
Prof. Jason H. Hafner
Rice University
Physics & Astronomy – MS61
PO Box 1892
Houston, TX 77251-1892
USA
hafner@rice.edu
Prof. Judith A. Harrison
U.S. Naval Academy
Chemistry Department, MS 9B
572 Holloway Road
Annapolis, Maryland 21402
USA
jah@usna.edu
Mr. Seong-Jun Heo
3400 Stevenson Blvd. J18
Fremont, CA 94538
USA
heogyver@ufl.edu
Prof. Peter Hinterdorfer
University of Linz
Institute for Biophysics
Altenbergerstr. 69
4040 Linz
Austria
peter.hinterdorfer@jku.at
Dr. Hirotaka Hosoi
Hokkaido University
Creative Research Initiative Sousei
Kita 21, Nishi 10, Kita-ku, Sapporo
Japan
hosoi@cris.hokudai.ac.jp
Prof. Jacob N. Israelachvili
University of California
Department of Chemical Engineering
and Materials
Santa Barbara, CA 93106
USA
jacob@engineering.ucsb.edu
Yong Chae Jung
The Ohio State University
NanotribologyLaboratory
for Information Storage
and MEMS/NEMS
W390 Scott Laboratory
201 W. 19th Avenue
Columbus, OH 43210-1142
USA
jung.181@osu.edu
Dr. Harold Kahn
Case Western Reserve University
Department of Materials Science
and Engineering
10900 Euclid Ave.
Cleveland, OH 44106-7204
USA
hxk29@po.cwru.edu
XXX List of Contributors
Dr. Oliver Pfeiffer
University of Basel
Institute of Physics
Klingelbergstr. 82
4056 Basel
Switzerland
oliver.pfeiffer@unibas.ch
Prof. Marina Ruths
University of Massachusetts Lowell
Department of Chemistry
1 University Avenue
Lowell, MA 01854
USA
marina_ruths@uml.edu
Akira Sasahara
Kanagawa Academy of Science
and Technology
Surface Chemistry Laboratory
KSP East 404, 3-2-1 Sakado
Takatsu-ku, Kawasaki-shi
Kanagawa 213-0012
Japan
sasahara@kobe-u.ac.jp
Dr. Andre Schirmeisen
University of Muenster
Institute of Physics
Wilhelm-Klemm-Str. 10
48149 Muenster
Germany
schira@uni-muenster.de
Dr. Alexander Schwarz
University of Hamburg
Institute of Applied Physics
Jungiusstr. 11
20355 Hamburg
Germany
aschwarz@physnet.uni-hamburg.de
Prof. Udo D. Schwarz
Yale University
Department of Mechanical Engineering
P.O. Box 208284
15 Prospect Street, Rm. 213
New Haven, CT 06520-8284
USA
udo.schwarz@yale.edu
Prof. Susan B. Sinnott
University of Florida
Deptartment of Materials Science
and Engineering
154 Rhines Hall
P.O. Box 116400
Gainesville, Florida, 32611-6400
USA
sinnott@mse.ufl.edu
Dr. Anisoara Socoliuc
University of Basel
Institute of Physics
Klingelbergstr. 82
4056 Basel
Switzerland
a.socoliuc@unibas.ch
Prof. Yasuhiro Sugawara
Osaka University
Department of Applied Physics
Graduate School of Engineering
Yamada-Oka 2-1, Suita 565-0871
Japan
sugawara@ap.eng.osaka-u.ac.jp
Prof. Y. Elaine Zhu
Deptartment of Chemical
& Biomolecular Engineering
182 Fitzpatrick Hall
University of Notre Dame
Notre Dame, IN 46556
USA
yzhu3@nd.edu
List of Contributors XXIX
Carmen LaTorre
Owens Corning
Insulating Systems Business
2790 Columbus Road
Route 16 (Bldg 20-1)
Granville, OH 43023
USA
carmen.latorre@owenscorning.com
Dr. Huiwen Liu
Seagate Technology
Mailstop NRW 130
7801 Computer Avenue
Bloomington, MN 55435
USA
huiwen.liu@seagate.com
Prof. Adrian B. Mann
Rutgers University
Department of Ceramic
& Materials Engineering
and Biomedical Engineering
607 Taylor Road
Piscataway, NJ 08854
USA
abmann@rci.rutgers.edu
Prof. Othmar Marti
University of Ulm
Department of Experimental Physics
Albert-Einstein-Allee 11
89069 Ulm
Germany
othmar.marti@uni-ulm.de
Prof. Ernst Meyer
University of Basel
Institute of Physics
Klingelbergstr. 82
4056 Basel
Switzerland
ernst.meyer@unibas.ch
Prof. Markus Morgenstern
RWTH Aachen University
II. Institute of Physics B
52056 Aachen
Germany
mmorgens@physik.rwth-aachen.de
Prof. Seizo Morita
Osaka University
Department of Electronic Engineering
Graduate School of Engineering
Yamada-Oka 2-1, Suita 565-0871
Japan
smorita@ele.eng.osaka-u.ac.jp
Prof. Koichi Mukasa
Hokkaido University
Nanoelectronics Laboratory
Graduate School of Engineering
Nishi-8, Kita-13, Kita-ku, Sapporo
060-8628
Japan
mukasa@nano.eng.hokudai.ac.jp
Prof. Ashis Mukhopadhyay
Wayne State University
Deptartment of Physics
Detroit, MI
USA
ashis@physics.wayne.edu
Dr. Michael Nosonovsky
Stevens Institute of Technology
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Castle Point on Hudson
Hoboken, NJ 07030
USA
michael.nosonovsky@stevens.edu
Prof. Hiroshi Onishi
Kobe University
Department of Chemistry
Rokko-dai, Nada-ku, Kobe 657-8501
Japan
oni@kobe-u.ac.jp
List of Abbreviations
2-DEG two-dimensional electron gas
AC alternating current
AFAM atomic force acoustic microscopy
AFM atomic force microscopy
AM amplitude modulation
BFP biomembrane force probe
bioMEMS biomedical microelectromechanicalsystems
BSA bovine serum albumium
BW bonded washed
CD compact disc
CD critical dimension
CDW charge density wave
CE capillary electrophoresis
CG controlled geometry
CMOS complementary metal oxide semiconductor
CSM continuous stiffness measurement
CVD chemical vapor deposition
DC direct current
DFM dynamic force microscopy
DFS dynamic force spectroscopy
DI deionized
DLC diamond like carbon
DLP digital light processing
DLVO Derjaguin–Landau–Verwey–Overbeek
DMD digital micromirror device
DMT Derjaguin–Muller–Toporov
DNA deoxyribonucleic acid
DOS density of state
DSP digital signal processor
EAM embedded atom method
XXXII List of Abbreviations
EBD electron beam deposition
ECR-CVD electron cyclotron resonance chemical vapor depostion
EELS electron energy loss spectroscopy
EFM electrostatic force microscopy
EHD electrohydrodynamic
FC flip-chip
FCA filtered cathodic arc
FCP force calibration plot
FEM finite element modeling
FESP force modulation etched Si probe
FET field effect transistor
FFM friction force microscope
FIB focused ion beam
FKT Frenkel–Kontorova–Tomlinson
FM frequency modulation
FM-AFM force modulation mode atomic force microscopy
FM-SFM force modulation mode scanning force microscopy
FS force spectroscopy
GMR giant magnetoresistance
HDT hexadecanethiol
HF hydrofluoric acid
HOP highly oriented pyrolytic
HOPG highly oriented pyrolytic graphite
HtBDC hexa-tert-butyl-decacyclene
HTCS high-temperaturesuperconductivity
IBD ion beam deoposition
IC integrated circuit
ICAM interellular adhesion molecule
ISE indentation size effect
JKR Johnson–Kendall–Roberts
KPFM Kelvin probe force microscopy
LB Langmuir–Blodgett
LDOS local density of state
LFA leukocyte function-associated antigen
LFM lateral force microscopy
LJ Lennard–Jones
LN liquid-nitrogen
LPCVD low-pressure chemical vapor deposition
LVDT linear variable differential transformer
MAP manifold absolute pressure
MD molecular dynamics
ME metal-evaporated
MEMS microelectromechanical systems
MFM magnetic force microscopy