Astakhov V. Tribology of Metal Cutting
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Experimental Determination of the Chip Compression Ratio (CCR) 417
and
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ζ
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419
Index
2
k
Factorial experiment, 294
Amplitude, 105, 107
ANSI/ASME Tool Life Testing, 221, 276
Apparent coefficient of friction, 127,
173, 184
Asperities, 126
ASTM Manual on the Use of
Thermocouples in Temperature, 204
ASTM Standard tests, 334
Asymmetric deformation, 141
Bending moment, 15, 84
Body contact, undeformed/loaded, 137
Boussinesq solution, 140
Briks criterion, 187, 193
Brinell hardness, 178
Built-up edge, 83
Card model, 3, 8
Catastrophic tool failure, 211
Charge-coupled device (CCD) camera,
200, 278
Charpy values (CVN), 231
Chemical adsorption (chemisorption), 358
Chip compression ratio (CCR), 11, 76, 80,
89–91, 150, 153–154, 167–169, 174,
185. See also Poletica criterion;
Plastic deformation
correlations with the forces on the flank,
184–185
experimental determination, 414–416
influence of adhesion properties of the
work and tool materials, 169
influence of surrounding media, 174
influence of the cutting speed, 171–173
influence of the thermoconductivity of
the work material, 176
influence of the tool–chip contact
temperature, 167
Chip deformation, energy loss, 96
Chip formation, 1–63, 111, 155, 286
frequency, 53
work materials
brittle, 25
ductile, 29
highly ductile, 33
Chip formation models, applicability, 60
computer numerical control (CNC), 60
Chip forming zone, 71–73, 97
Chip temperature, 86
Chip thickness, 103
Chip velocity, 97
Coatings, 372
selection notes, 376
Coating application techniques
chemical vapor deposition (CVD), 373–374
dynamic compound deposition (DCD), 374
physical vapor deposition (PVD), 373–374
thermal diffusion (TD), 374–375
Coating–substrate interface, 374
Cochran’s criterion, 301
Coefficient of friction, 127
Coherent energy waves, 100
Component methods of improving tribological
conditions, 326
Computer aided manufacturing (CAM), 368
Confidence interval, 302
Contact length, 149–151, 157, 175, 187, 195.
See also Uncut chip thickness
Coolant, see Cutting fluid
Cooling action, 338–339
air-cutting fluid mixture (mist), 348–351
cooling intensity, 341–342
direct, 340
due to evaporation, 343–348
embedded heat pipe in the tool, 351–355
embrittlement, 355
energy balance, 338–339
Correlation diagram, 288–289, 291
Correlation table, 289, 292
Coulomb friction, 125
420 Index
Critical internal energy, 85
Cross-validation criterion, 319
Cut-in period, 147
Cutting edge, 23, 179
active length, 195
angle, 103
radius, 97, 197, 407–408
Cutting feed, 109, 239–240, 242–243
Cutting fluids (coolants)
application, 331–332
corrosion resistance, 368–369
cost, 370
cryogenic fluid, 367
emulsions, 365
foam tendency, 369
penetration into contact interfaces, 336–338
practical considerations in the final
selection, 368
safety/health, 369–370
selection, 330
selection, 330–334, 368–372
semi-synthetic fluids, 366
stability, 370
straight oils, 364–365
synthetic fluids, 365
waste treatability, 368
Cutting fluid, trying and testing, 331
actual cutting under controlled conditions,
354–355
rubbing test, 332–334
trying out on a machine, 331
Cutting inserts, 106
Cutting operations, 83
Cutting parameters, 239
Cutting power/force, 16, 338
Cutting process, 109
Cutting regime, 107, 117
Cutting speed, 82, 84, 111, 130–133, 135,
158, 162, 170–173, 197–198, 338.
See also Chip compression ratio
influence of, 43, 104, 237
Cutting system
efficiency, 91–92
energy balance, 94
energy partition, 69
physical efficiency, 73
Cutting theory, xii, 4, 20, 78, 91, 190, 210,
243, 336
Cutting temperature, 197–198, 227
influence of the cutting speed, 235, 237
Cutting tool, 69, 71
chip formation cycle, 154
geometry, 114, 117
physical resource, 220
tool wear, 220
trajectory, 102
Cutting wedge, 23, 72, 259–266, 269
angle, 194, 396–397
breakage, 264, 266
creep, 259
plastic lowering, 265–266
resource, 269
Deformation/thermal longitudinal waves,
interaction of, 108, 113
Deformation velocity, 87, 111
Deformation wave, wavelength of, 110
Deformation zone, 124
Depth of cut, 110, 239, 244–245
Design matrix, 286–288, 294–297, 306,
310–315, 417
orthogonality, 297
properties, 295–297
Design of experiments (DOE), 277, 417
basic terminology, 277
errors, 279
pre-process decisions, 283
requirements to test conditions, 279
screening DOE, 281
sieve DOE, 282
Diamond-like coating (DLC), 378
Difficult-to-machine material, 91, 254, 269
Dimension tool life, 224–227, 244, 253
Dimension wear rate, 225
Distribution law of normal pressure, 145
Dry machining, 329–330
Ductility, 231, 233
Dundrus’ constant, 138
Dynamic phenomena, 312–318
Dynamometer, 75, 182
Easy-to-machine material, 91
Elasticity modulus, 84–85
Electromotive force (e.m.f.), 250
Electronic voltmeters, 205
Elongation at fracture, 120
Energy consumption, 117
Energy exchange, 69
Energy flows, 70
chip energy, 71
chip formation zone, 71, 82, 84
cutting tool energy, 71
Energy loss, 95
Energy of failure, 101
Index 421
Energy waves,
experimental verification, 103
interaction, 99
internal energy, 99
wavelengths, 112
Errors/inaccuracies, 280–281
Extreme pressure (EP) additives, 337
Extreme pressure properties, 332
Factor, 278
code value, 295
compatibility, 284
controllability, 283
effect, 290
independence, 284
interval of variation, 295, 303
levels, 298, 306
significance, 290, 293
zero level, 295, 302–303
Falex Pin and Vee Method, 332
Falex Tapping Torque Test Machine,
334–335
FEM analysis, 146–147
model, 126, 145
Film condensation, 353
F-criterion of Fisher, 304
First cutting law (Makarow’s law), 229
consequences, 234
Flank, 97
Flank angle
influence, definition, 405–406
Flank contact surface, 179
Flank forces, 177, 183
Flow-shear stress, 91
Force
acting along the shear plane, 9, 15
cutting, 13, 15–16
friction, 13
normal, 13
thrust, 13
Fractional factorial experiment, 282
Fracture strain, 117–118
Free cutting, 394
Friction angle, 3, 7
Frequency of chip formation, 53
influence of the cutting speed and work
material, 57
Gradient, 278
Group Method of Data Handling (GMDH),
307–323
algorithm, 320–322
Artificial intelligence (AI), 307
Neural network (NN), 307
Gundrilling, 284, 302
components, 284
cutting conditions, 287
cutting fluid/coolant, 287
design/geometry, 284–286
design matrix, 286, 288, 305–306
machine, 286
tool life criteria, 287, 294
work material, 287
Half-plane indentation, 139
Heat conduction, Fourier law of, 353
Heat transfer coefficient, 349–350, 352
High-speed machining, 113
Homogeneity, variance, 301
Hooke’s law, 79
Hydrostatic stress, 117–118
Inclination angle, 408–409
Internal energy principle, 99
Interactions of energy waves, 99
influence on the cutting force, 102–114
Japan, Society for Precision Engineering
(JSPE), 22
Kolmogorov criterion, 312
Kolmogorov–Gabor polynomial, 309
Loading-unloading system, 69
Lode stress parameter, 116–118
Log–log plot, 81
Low/high temperature creep, 256–258,
260–261
Low-energy chemical reactions, 360
Lubricity tests, 334
Machinability, 88, 379–386
Machining zone, 99
Makarow’s law, 227, 229–230, 234
Mathematical model DOE, 278–279, 282–283,
297, 300, 302, 305, 318–320, 322
adequacy, 303
for the roundness of the gundrilled hole, 304
of tool life, 306
Mean contact temperature, 167
Mean normal contact stress, 161–162, 164,
171, 176. See also Poletica criterion
Machining at optimum cutting temperature,
229
422 Index
Mean shear stress, 158, 160–161, 175
Mean stress variation, 120
Medium temperature CVD (MTCVD), 374
Metal cutting, 23
temperature assessment, 191
tests, 276
thermal analysis, 211
Microstructural methods, 199
Minimum quantity lubricant (MQL), 330,
348–351
Model of chip formation, 21. See also
single-shear plane model
for brittle work materials, 26
for cutting with a high rake angle, 40
for ductile work materials, 30
for saw-toothed chip formation, 48
generalized, chip shape classification, 23
influence of the cutting speed, 43
when seizure occurs, 37–39
Modulus of elasticity, 95
Molecular diffusion, 88
Multi-layer coating, 377
Mutual adhesion properties, tool/work
materials, 167, 173, 176
Natural contact length, 156
Near-dry machining, see Minimum quantity
lubricant
Non-free cutting, 394
Number of degrees of freedom, 291, 303
Nusselt number (Nu), 340
Oblique cutting, 394
basic terms, 383
Optimal cutting speed, 230–231, 234
Optimal cutting temperature, 227, 229, 231,
234–238, 242–246, 250, 254
experimental determination, 231
cutting operations, 230
influence on the properties and metallurgy
of the work material, 232–234
methods of determination, 237–239
Optimal tool life, 244
Organic SAAs
chlorine-substituted, 358
iodine-substituted, 358
Orthogonal coordinate system, 104
Orthogonal cutting, 114, 136, 392
Pareto analysis, 293
Péclet number (number), 87–88, 99, 193
Peierls–Nabarro stress, 233
Physical adsorption, 360
Physical efficiency of the cutting system, 74
concept and determination through cutting
force, 74–75
determination through the chip compression
ratio, 75
influence of the cutting feed, 93
influence of the depth of cut, 93
influence of the rake angle, 92
methods of improving, 98
Physical vapour deposition (PVD), 199
coatings, 374–375
Physisorption, 357
Plackett–Burman design, 282
Plastic deformation, 73, 76–97, 256, 261.
See also Shear strain
chip compression ratio (CCR), 76–77, 80,
86, 91
chip deformation, 77
equilibrium, 78
force/stress equilibrium, 78
geometrical deformation, 77
measures, 76
metal-deforming process, 76
shear-flow stress, 76
Plastic lowering, 254–269
cutting wedge structure, 284
fractography of breakage due to lowering,
264
influence of the cutting feed and speed,
256–257
intensification due to seizure, 259
model, 260, 265
reduction, 266
Plastic strain parameter, 116
Poisson’s ratio, 79, 95, 117, 137
Poletica criterion (Po-criterion), 152–155,
164, 175
influence of CCR, 153–156
Polycrystalline diamond (PCD), 326, 378
Prandtl number (Pr), 341
Pre-process decisions, 279, 283
compatibility, 284
controllability, 283
independence, 284
Principal stress, 115
Radial tool wear, 249
Rake angle, 91–92, 97, 148, 152, 161, 165.
See also Contact length
definition, influence, 403–405
Rebinder effect, 355–357
Index 423
Regression coefficient, 299
Regression model, 294
Regularity criterion, 319
Relative sharpness similarity criterion, 193
Relative tangential displacement, 138
Resource of the cutting wedge, 269
correlation between total work and
flank wear, 270
correlation curves, 273
critical work, 269
Resonant frequency, 103
Response, 277
Reynolds number (Re), 340
Saw-toothed chip, 48–53
FEM, modeling, 50–51
instrumented hardness tests, 52
system formation, 49
Scatter diagram, 292
Screening test, 281–282
segmental saw-toothed chip, formation, 55–57
Semi-dry machining, see Minimum quantity
lubricant
Shear angle, 3–8, 15
Shear-flow stress, 113
Shear plane, 3–8
Shear strain, final, 6–7, 10–11, 80
Shear (frictional) stress, 126
Shear stress, definition, 140
Shear/stress distributions, 134
Sieve test, 293
Similarity criterion, 187, 194–195
Sine wave, wavelength of, 109
Single-point turning tools, 221, 276
rake face/crater wear, 221
relief face/flank wear, 221
Single-shear plane model, 1–20
Brik’s model, 4
Card model, 8
deformation zones, 5
drawbacks, list, 20
Merchant solution (theory), 18
plastic deformation, 5
scanning electron microscope (SEM), 11,
46–47
shear stress/normal stress, 19
specific shear angle, 6
specific shear plane, 6
Time model, 3
tool-chip interface, 5
velocity diagram, 9–10, 12
Zorev’s model, 6
Sinusoidal periodic data, 104
Sliding, 124, 144
velocity, 124
Solid film lubricants, 332
Solid-state solutions, 168
Specific dimension tool life, 227–228
Specific heat, 88
State of stress, 114
calculation from the tensile test data,
119–120
influence of the strain at fracture, 115–118
Statistical criteria of Fisher (F-criterion), 301,
303–304
Standard deviation, 290
Steady-state thermodynamic analysis, 87
Steady-state wear, 223
Sticking friction, 126
Strain-hardening coefficient, 81
Strain rate, 9, 83
Stress triaxiality, 114–115
Stress/elongation at fracture, 119
Stress-strain curve, 75, 81
true stress–strain curve (flow curve), 81
Stress–strain relationship (Prandtl), 116
Structure of manufacturing costs, 329
Student’s t-criterion, 290, 301
Super hard tool materials, 339
Superimposed hydrostatic pressure, 119
Surface-active agents (SAA), 358
Surface wear rate, 227–228, 240
System model, interface stress distributions,
145
System rigidity, 248
Systemic methods of improving tribological
conditions, 327
Taylor’s tool life formula, 224
Temperature at the contact interfaces, 189
analytical/numerical methods, 191
similarity methods, 192–199
microstructural methods, 199–200
Temperature Measurement
calibration procedure, 209
embedded thermocouple, 204–205
infrared thermography, 200, 202
natural thermocouple, 209
running thermocouple, 206
thermocouples, 204
tool–work thermocouple, 207–208, 210–211
Temperature–deformation stress relaxation,
260
Temperature–hardness curves, 237, 239
424 Index
Temperature–speed (cutting) factor, 150
Thermal conductivity, 72, 88, 96
Thermal diffusivity, 88, 102
Thermal energy, 72, 98, 338
Time–temperature transformation (TTT)
diagrams, 199
Tool–chip contact
area, 241
length, 125, 168, 169
elastic zone, 87, 134
influence of adhesion properties of the
work and tool materials, 169
influence of the cutting speed, 151
influence of the rake angle, 152
influence of the uncut chip thickness, 150
influence of the work material, 151
influence on the normal stress, 157
plastic zone, 134–135
Tool–chip interface, 71, 78, 84, 125, 135, 140,
220, 224, 227, 231, 241, 244, 247,
256, 258–259, 269, 273, 327
basic tribological characteristics, 125
characteristic points, 141
contact normal stress
influence of the cutting speed, 162, 170
influence of the Poletica criterion, 164
influence of the rake angle, 163
contact shear stress
correlation with CCR, 161
correlation with the ultimate tensile
strength, 160
influence of the contact temperature, 159
influence of the cutting speed and rake
angle, 158, 170
contact stress distributions, 128
contact stress measurement
experimental sliplinefield method,
130–134
photoelastic method, 128–130
split tool method, 130–132
friction coefficient, 125
modeling FEM, 145–149
modeling, analytical 134–145
Tool cutting edge angle
definition, 397–398
significance, 399–403
Tool failure, 254
Tool geometry, 107, 323, 391–412
angle of cut, 247
angles, definitions, 396
chip thickness, 240, 245, 249
chip width, 245
flank angle, 247, 259
parameters, 245
rake angle, 3, 6–8, 11, 247, 249, 267
rake surface, 245, 266
reference plains, 394–396
tool nose radius, 245, 259, 266
tool-in-hand system, 396–397
Tool life, 167, 220, 222, 304
dimensional tool life, assessment criteria,
225
inconsistency, 113
influence of cutting feed under optimal
cutting temperature, 243
influence of the cutting feed and depth
of cut, 239
influence of the tool geometry, 245
influence of the workpiece diameter,
248
specific dimensional tool life, 226
Taylor’s tool life formula, 224
testing, 237, 310–322
Tool material, influence 165–166, 168
Tool rake face, 156, 164–165
Tool wear
curves, 222
dimensional wear rate, 225
influence of the cutting speed, 235, 246
surface wear rate, 226
types, 221
volumetric (mass) tool wear, 225
wear patterns, 226
Tool–workpiece interface, 177
modeling, similarity methods, 18
normal and shear stress distributions,
181
Zorev’s results, 177
Tool wear rate, 240–242, 245, 247, 250
assessment, 224
Transition temperature range, 233
Tresca, 3
Tribological characteristics, assessment,
179–191
Tribological condition improvement
component method, 326–327
property modification (work material),
368
systemic method, 327
Tribological interfaces, 87
Tribology, 94
Uncut chip thickness, 149–150, 197
definition, 399–403
Index 425
determination, 410–412
influence on the axial force, 316
influence on the drilling torque, 317
Uniaxial tension, 115
van der Waals-type forces, 357
Variance homogeneity, 301
Variance, raw, 300
Variance of adequacy, 303
Variance of response, 300
Vector of input variables, 311
Velocity
diagrams, 10–11
normal to the shear plane, 11
of chip, 9
of shear, 9, 12
Volterra functional series, 308
Volumetric/mass tool wear, 225, 228
von Mises yield criterion, 116
von Mises’ stress, 79
Water-based cutting fluid, 346
Wave-interaction force component, 109
Wavelength, 105, 107
Work material, 165, 168, 171, 174, 183,
194, 379
machinability
grain size, 383
heat treatment, 381
minor elements, 385
Work of plastic deformation in metal
cutting, 76
elementary, 81
total, 81
influence of the cutting speed, 82–87
Workpiece, 69
diameter, 103, 110, 248–254
rotational speed, 111
Worn volume, 226
X-ray microanalyzer, 337
Yield shear strength, 187
Young’s modulus, 231
Zorev’s analysis/results, 177–179
Zvorykin, 3
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